Any statement is pronounced with intonation. Intonation is a complex phenomenon; it consists of several components.
1. Each phrase has a logical stress; it falls on the word that is the most important in meaning in the phrase. With the help of logical stress, you can clarify the meaning of a statement, for example: a) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (and not next week); b) Tomorrow we (our class, not another) will go to the theater; c) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (not go); d) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (not on an excursion).
2. Intonation consists of raising and lowering the voice - this is the melody of speech. It is different in every language.
3. Speech proceeds quickly or slowly - this determines its tempo.
4. Intonation is characterized by the timbre of speech, depending on the target setting. He can be “gloomy”, “cheerful”, “scared”, etc.
5. Pause - a stop, a break in the movement of tone always happens at the border of phrases, but can also happen inside a phrase. It is very important to pause at the right place, since the meaning of the statement depends on it. How surprised his / brother’s words were!
How surprised he was/by his brother’s words!
Pauses are logical (semantic) and psychological (dictated by feelings). Logical pauses separate groups of words united from each other general meaning. K. Stanislavsky called psychological pauses “eloquent silence.” Among pauses of this type, there are pauses of recollection (And this one, / what’s his name /, is he a Turk or a Greek? // That one, / the little black one / on crane legs... (A. Griboedov); pauses of silence (Although he was afraid to say... It would not be difficult to guess, When... but the heart, The younger, The more fearful, The more strictly it preserves, keeps from people the reason for its hopes, its passions.(M. Lermontov) The author often suggests the need for a psychological pause with ellipses.

The role of intonation in acting is obvious, as well as in oratory. The correctness of the selection of words in speech, their sound and effect on the public, has long been studied and is undeniable. Let's try to understand in more detail what intonation is, what it is, where it is used, etc.

What is the intonation in Russian? Types of intonation.

The means of phonetic organization of speech (intonation) is divided into three types:

1. Narrative;
2. Interrogative;
3. Exclamation.

The first type is characterized by smooth and, accordingly, calm pronunciation of speech. The story flows smoothly, periodically slightly raising the voice (intonation peak) and lowering it (intonation decrease). This method is usually not used constantly. In any case, the speaker or actor has to use the second and third types of phonetic organization. Question intonation is characterized by a rise in the tone of voice at the beginning, and a decrease in tone towards the end of the phrase. In general, the name clearly reflects the essence of this species.

For exclamatory intonation, the opposite state of affairs is more typical: the tone rises towards the end of the utterance. A pronounced emotional color easily attracts the attention of the public. Obviously, neither method is used independently.

Actors, like speakers, are characterized by a transition or gradual alternation of one type with another. Correct intonation should be developed during classes with teachers. You can also achieve development at home. To do this, you can use a method such as reading aloud. At the same time, you need to pay attention to the punctuation marks placed at the end of the sentence. Comprehension is impossible without developing the correct intonation.

Correct intonation: what is this?

The pace of the story is also important. Or more precisely, the speed of reproduction of the monologue. A fast pace is typical for excited speech. But the slow one is for the solemn occasion. Smooth transition from one speed to another is often used in various fields. Of course, intonation in Russian is impossible without intensity (voice strength). This is an opportunity to either add an emotional color to the story, or vice versa – to slow down the momentum. The first case is observed when expressing emotions such as fear or joy. But a decrease in the strength of the voice is typical for expressing sad feelings, loss of loved ones, etc. Correct intonation is not possible without logical pauses, which are simply necessary for the public to comprehend what the speaker or actor has said. And lastly, in order to express your emotions qualitatively through various means and types of intonation, good diction is important. Without her, no performance is possible. In general, it involves many components, such as theoretical training, and practice. Of course, speech should be distinguished by logical expressiveness, but emotional expressiveness is no less important. A thought that the speaker has not felt will not touch the viewer, no matter how well the technical intonation of the voice is worked out.

Only under the condition of proper mental assessment and expression of a personal attitude towards the spoken text can the listener be interested. Indeed, in this case, such components of intonation as emotional stress and thoughtful pauses, determined by both the mood and feelings of the speaker, are clearly manifested.

There is no doubt that punctuation and intonation are closely interconnected. Once you forget about punctuation marks, speech immediately becomes monotonous, turns into a lifeless gray monolith that can only make the listener yawn. But the main functions of intonation are aimed at increasing interest in the story, breaking it down into semantic pieces (so-called syntagms). Some experts contrast intonation with prosody. It is enough for the average person to know that, unlike intonation that operates with phrases, prosody is based on syllables. To the basic elements of intonation usually include: 1. Accents. 2. Pauses. 3. Timbre. 4. Melodics. 5. Temp. However, in reality, all elements of intonation exist in unity. Only science can consider individual components for its own purposes. It is worth pointing out negative examples of intonation. So to typical mistakes usually include both monotony of speech and too high (low) tone of the entire text of the speech, rising intonation at the end of narrative sentences and insufficient expressiveness of speech. You need to work hard on such shortcomings every day, especially if constant performances are expected.

School textbooks distinguish these types of sentences by intonation: non-exclamatory and exclamatory. The second type is characterized by the expression of strong feelings.

Many people mistakenly believe that intonation sentences are interrogative, exclamatory and declarative. However, this division is carried out not on the basis of intonation, but on the purpose of the speaker’s statement. The famous researcher of the great and powerful language, Vsevolodsky-Gerngross, in his works, on the question of what intonations are, identifies at least 16 types of intonation. Among them: invitational and comparative, imperative and vocative, persuasive and enumerative, pleading and affirmative, etc. Describing the definition of intonation, this scientist notes that it is the most ephemeral component of colorful oral speech. At the same time, the most important acoustic characteristics intonation are melody, duration and intensity.

Intonation(lat. intonō “pronounce loudly”) - a set of prosodic characteristics of a sentence: tone (melody of speech), volume, tempo of speech and its individual segments, rhythm, phonation features. Together with stress, it forms the prosodic system of the language.

Unlike segmental phonetic units (phonemes) and differential features that do not have own plan content, all intonation units are bilateral, in other words, they are signs that express one or another meaning.

There are two types of intonation means (intoneme) :

1 phrasal accents - placed mainly on stressed syllables of words; their main symptom is a change in tone. Perform the most important functions intonation: the direction of tone movement indicates the purpose of the utterance, or illocution (so, in Russian, the indicator general issue serves as an ascending movement of tone), the place of phrasal emphasis is on the “focus” of the utterance (the element of the sentence that most interests the speaker: cf. Vanya came to Tuesday? and Vanya I arrived on Tuesday?);

2 integral (non-accentual) characteristics - cover groups of words or entire sentences.

Elements of intonation:

intonation in in a broad sense words consists of the following elements:

1 speech melody, that is, the movement of musical tone, raising and lowering the voice;

2 rhythm, that is, the ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables;

3 pace, that is, the speed of speech in time, acceleration and deceleration;

4 speech intensity, that is, the strength or weakness of utterance, intensification and weakening of exhalation;

5 presence-absence intraphrase pauses, which divide a phrase into speech beats;

6 timbre– the color of the sound, which depends on which overtones accompany the main tone, i.e. from complex oscillatory movements, giving a sound wave; in the Russian language, timbre distinguishes from each other the diverse shades of stressed and unstressed vowels, as well as the different colors of consonants; timbre – individual feature sound (for men, women, children, the timbre of speech is different; it is different for those who speak, say, bass or tenor), but there are also constant components of the color of the sound, as a result of which [e] will always differ from [a] or [ p] from [m].

Definition of the word. The word as a linguistic sign. Replenishment ways vocabulary language

Word– this is a significant independent unit of language, the main function of which is nomination (naming); unlike morphemes, the minimal significant units of a language, a word itself (although it may consist of one morpheme: suddenly, kangaroo), is grammatically formed according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only a material, but also a lexical meaning; Unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication, the word, as such, is not communicative (although it can act as a sentence (Dawn. No.), but it is from words that sentences for communication are built; in this case, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign , whereby words are distinguished, forming separate unities of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression.

Charles Ogden, Richards Ivory - “The Meaning of Meaning”.

concept

sign(word) meaning referent(item)

1. A concept is a mental unit, which is a set of characteristics of a given object (belonging to thinking).
2. A sign is only the carrier of meaning itself, a certain material shell (sound or graphic form).
3. The referent is the subject of reality.

Signs are substitutes for objects. In the process of using signs, a so-called “sign situation” arises.

Character properties:

1. Availability of material form;

2. Availability of meaning or content;

3. Existence only within the system and opposition to other signs only within the system. (Semiotics is the science of sign systems);

4. Conditionality;

5. Mandatory communication for everyone who uses this system.

WAYS TO ENRICH THE VOCABULARY OF A LANGUAGE:

1. Borrowing (external resource).

2. Word formation (transition from one part to another, abbreviation of stems, affixation, addition of stems). This is an internal resource.

3. Changes in word meanings or semantic shifts (internal resource).

In this section we will consider the classification of elements of intonation, the characteristics of intensive elements of intonation (pause, logical stress, intensity), frequency (melody, range height), temporal (tempo, emphatic longitude), spectral (intonation timbre), consider the role, versatility and meaning each element of intonation in teaching correct intonation, we will reveal the concept of speech rhythm.

Elements of intonation:

The physical structure of an intonation structure is made up of elements of intonation. The following groups are distinguished:

Group 1 - intensive elements: intonation pause, logical stress, intonation intensity;

Group 2 - frequency elements: melody and range height;

Group 3 - temporal (time) elements: tempo and emphatic longitude;

Group 4 - spectral element: intonation timbre.

Group 1 - intensive elements: intonation pause, logical stress, intonation intensity.

Pause is a break in speech. Acts as a means of dividing speech, a means of expressing the nature of the connection (together with melody), a means of semantic and emotional highlighting (LES, 1990, p. 369) (or: A pause means two phenomena: firstly, a larger or smaller break in the sound, being the boundary between two more or less meaningful segments of speech; secondly, a change in tone at the boundary of syntagmatic division).

At correct use a pause is always welcome. It's useful in every way, and it's easy to make. It makes breathing easier and makes it possible to figure out which thought to move on to next. The rhythm of speech itself largely depends on the intervals and duration of pauses. The rhythm of speech requires not monotony in the duration of pauses, but a pleasant expressive variety of pauses. It is necessary to feel the rhythm that corresponds to the content of the speech, and try to determine where it is necessary to speed up the pace, where to slow down, where to make a short pause, and where to stop before the decisive word or phrase in order to create the desired impression.

K.S. Stanislavsky describes three types of pauses: logical, psychological, backlash.

A logical pause helps clarify the idea of ​​the text. A psychological pause gives life to this thought, phrase, trying to convey its subtext. If without a logical pause speech is illiterate, then without a psychological pause it is lifeless. Logical pauses can be connecting or dividing. The shortest connecting pause is the backlash pause (air pause, the shortest stop necessary to take a breath). A connecting pause between speech beats is indicated by one vertical line (|), a longer pause between speech beats or sentences is indicated by two lines (||), a dividing logical pause, which marks the boundaries of sentences, semantic and plot compositional pieces, is indicated by three vertical lines (| ||).

Analysis of logical pauses includes characteristics of their duration, as well as completeness or incompleteness, or more precisely, the degree of their completeness. The duration of a pause and the degree of its perceptibility are not always directly related. Sometimes a physically short pause can be quite noticeable, especially in cases where the pause is at the junction of contrasting tones, tempos, and rhythms.

G.I. Ivanova-Lukyanova identifies five types of pauses according to the place of use:

1. Grammatical, arising at the site of syntagmatic division and realized by a change in tone and a break in sound; has a normative character, since it corresponds to the syntactic structure of speech.

2. Grammatical, created only by a change in tone without a real break in sound. These pauses are characteristic of two styles of speech: official business and journalistic.

3. Ungrammatical, that is, representing a real stop in places not intended for pauses. The reason for this phenomenon lies in the unpreparedness of the statement, which is typical of colloquial speech.

4. Psychological, having emotional content.

5. The absence of pauses in places where the syntactic structure of the text provides for a mandatory boundary of division. “Missed” pauses are common in colloquial speech, present in dialogue, and depend on various kinds of cliches.

According to the acoustic expression, a pause can be real or imaginary (zero).

A real pause is a stop, a break in the sound. These are pauses that delimit statements in oral speech, pauses indicated in written text (for example, punctuation) at the boundaries of paragraphs and sentences, in place of a dash, comma or semicolon, as well as before most conjunctions and at the boundaries of poetic lines.

With imaginary pauses, there is no break in the sound, but there are changes in the tonal contour - “a turning point in the melody” or “the cessation of a fall in tone and the beginning of a new rise,” a change in tempo or a junction (neighborhood) of semantic stresses. To the ear, such features of intonation are perceived as a pause between syntagms.

Graphic symbols of pauses:

Connective pause between speech beats - /

Longer pause (usually between sentences) - //

Separating logical pause (borders of semantic, plot segments) - ///.

In his teaching on the art of stage speech, K.S. Stanislavsky special

pays attention to stress, or as he says, “accentuation.” An accent that is in the wrong place distorts the meaning and cripples the phrase, whereas on the contrary it should help create it!

Logical stress is the arbitrary selection of one of the elements of a statement in order to increase its semantic weight.

The basis of stress is intensity, the power of sound. For the intonation of speech, verbal stress (the power and tonal peak of the word through which the intonational movement of the phrase is carried out) and semantic stress (syntagmatic, phrasal and logical) are fundamentally important.

The physiological mechanisms involved in the implementation of logical stress are the respiratory system, the larynx, and peripheral articulators. The observed coordinated changes in their activity should imply strict coordination of control signals. Since the meaning of the statement depends on the placement of logical stress, then general mechanisms control of logical stress should be attributed to fairly high levels of synthesis of speech programs.

Logical stress is the support of thought, as K.S. said. Stanislavsky is an “index finger” that highlights the main word in a phrase or group of words in a sentence. Logical accents are placed depending on the purpose of the statement, the main idea of ​​the entire topic and group of words. Logical stress is most often achieved by raising or lowering the tone - tonal stress. Sometimes a word or group of words in a sentence is highlighted using logical pauses before the highlighted word, after it, or two pauses: before and after the highlighted word.

Stress (verbal and logical) has three dimensions: strength, height, length. It is necessary to take into account the degree of each of the components and which of them is dominant in each particular case.

The purpose of emphasis is to highlight the most important words for conveying a thought, expressing the essence of what is being said in a sentence or in a whole passage.

There are the following types of stress: bar, phrasal I, phrasal II. Bar stress is the stress on a word within a speech bar. Phrase stress I is the highlighting of the main meaning of the speech tact in a sentence. When, with the help of phrasal stress, an entire phrase in a passage is highlighted, such stress is called phrasal stress II.

Along with the concept of phrasal stress, many studies also use the concept of syntagmatic stress, sometimes without differences in the scope of concepts, and in other cases with a clear contrast. The latter can be considered a further development of the provisions of L.V. Shcherba, since the idea of ​​the existence of speech units of different dimensions (rhythmic group - a union of rhythmic groups, or syntagma, - a union of syntagmas, or a phrase) requires corresponding terms to reflect the most important means of combining these units (rhythmic stress - syntagmatic stress - phrasal stress).

Linguists consider bar and phrasal stress to be a necessary element of an isolated, complete sentence, emphasizing their constant position and stable melodic pattern.

Logical stress is not obligatory in a complete isolated sentence; it may be absent or coincide with phrasal stress, and its functions and means of implementation are strictly limited. It's about about the language model, the general features of the structure, which does not express all the processes essential for living speech.

Intonation, as well as phrasal stress of L.V. Shcherba refers to external exponents of grammatical categories, along with prefixes, suffixes, endings, word order, special auxiliary words, syntactic connections, etc.

According to the rules of language, stress in an isolated sentence takes on a specific word or phrase and can theoretically be expressed by strengthening the stressed syllable. “I was coming home through the FIELDS.” This stress can fall on the word “fields” in the process of speech action, and not only because “fields” is a phrasal stress, or because it is an addition, but primarily because “fields” means “new” What is the story's perspective?

The intensity, the power of pronunciation is determined by sound energy. This element of intonation is often identified with loudness, but intensity indicates more than just loudness. Intensity is also expressed in whispers. When we whisper some words, we can put maximum energy into them.

The strength of the voice is very important for the speaker. If he speaks very quietly, then only people nearby can hear him. An excessively loud, and especially shouting, voice causes irritation, rejection of what is said, and the effect of the speech is significantly reduced. Sometimes the volume of a voice depends on how correctly the speaker judges the pitch of his voice.

The intensity depends on the tension and amplitude of vibration of the vocal cords. The greater the amplitude of the vibration, the more intense the sound. The intensity level is determined by ear. It comes in low, medium and high. The level of sound intensity may not change (even, calm voice), but most often the direction and nature of the intensity changes: it increases or decreases, and this can be sharp or smooth. The interaction of tone and intensity increases the loudness of speech.

Intensive elements also include accentuation - the perceptually active highlighting by prosodic means of any word in a phrase.

Characteristic features of this selection:

1) it sharply distinguishes the word in comparison with its neighbors in the statement;

2) creates a communicative-textual aura around the utterance in which it is included, taking the content of the utterance beyond its scope.

Group 2 - frequency elements: melody and range height.

Melodics is understood as modulation of the pitch (intonation) tone when pronouncing a phrase, carried out by varying degrees of tension of the vocal cords (Akhmanova O.S.).

The melody of speech is the main component of intonation. The acoustic correlate of speech melody is a change in the frequency of the fundamental tone, unfolding over time. She organizes a phrase by dividing its parts; distinguishes between communicative types of utterances; highlights the most important part of the statement; serves to express emotions, modal shades, irony, subtext.

With the help of intonation, we create a general melodic structure of speech, similar to the sound of a song; only the change in pitch occurs faster and at a lower level. As soon as children begin to talk, they recognize many common intonations.

The pitch of the voice is controlled not only by the tension of the vocal folds, but also by the frequency of impulses received from the brain. A whispered voice is formed without the participation of the vocal folds and is obtained due to the friction of exhaling and inhaling air streams against the walls of the cavities of the larynx, pharynx, mouth and nose.

To learn correct intonation and correct intonation errors, it is necessary to have a fairly accurate description of the intonation of the type of sentence being studied. Of all the acoustic correlates of intonation, the most universal, significant and best understood means is melody. Awareness of melody is especially necessary when teaching intonation to correct phonological and phonetic (accent) errors in intonation.

Recognition of the type of sentence is influenced not only by melodic, but also by other components of intonation - duration, intensity. But the experience of teaching Russian intonation suggests that teaching the correct melody, that is, the component that has the greatest information content, simultaneously leads to some normalization of other components of intonation closely related to it, and to a certain extent conditioned by it.

Range pitch is the height of the fundamental tone of an utterance in relation to the range of the voice. The attribution of range height to elements of intonation is carried out because a segment of speech can be pronounced in one or another (middle, upper, lower) height, or, as they also call it, a band, and this is associated with the emotional, volitional content of the utterance. The data available in the literature on the capabilities of the human ear in differentiating tones indicate a fairly good sensitivity of our hearing aid to frequency changes. As a rule, when depicting something using speech (an animal, another person, etc.), we change precisely the range of the pitch of our voice.

Group 3 - temporal (time) elements: tempo and emphatic longitude.

The concept of tempo includes: the speed of speech in general, the duration of the sound of individual words, intervals and the duration of pauses. The more important the content, the more restrained the speech; The exception is rapid speech in tense or emotional situations.

Tempo - the speed of speech. Tempo matters in contrasting the important and the unimportant, in the characteristics of the sounding texts different styles, for example: the pace of an information message is fast, and the pace of a fairy tale is measured, often slow. Slowing down the tempo towards the end of the utterance serves as a means of creating its intonation integrity, giving special significance to what is being communicated here, and vice versa, by accelerating the pronunciation of some phrases, the secondary importance of what is being communicated is expressed. However, the pronunciation does not lose its correctness and intelligibility. The normal rate of speech is one in which from 9 to 14 phonemes are pronounced in one second.

The average speech rate is 110-120 words per minute. This pace is optimal for the teacher’s speech; it allows students to concentrate and not be distracted. A slow pace on all words for even 2-3 minutes distracts attention. An accelerated pace has the same effect: students do not have time to comprehend what is said and lose interest in the material.

The pace slows down if: something important is highlighted, attention is drawn, something slow is depicted; on important words, on unfamiliar words, on new terms. Slowing down the pace has a variety - syllable-by-syllable pronunciation. This technique is used when introducing new terms, to highlight words and phrases of particular importance.

The pace speeds up if: less important information is given, familiar information is given, something quick is depicted; speeds up in words - which do not have the main semantic load, reproducing the known.

Emphatic longitude (emphase) is the increased duration of one or, less often, several sounds in a word. The effect of emphatic longitude is created by exceeding the duration of a sound expected at a given rate of speech for a given average duration of sounds in a speech segment (syntagma). Emphatic length is one of the means of creating emotionally and expressively rich speech. Emphatic longitude can be accompanied by a change in the ranged pitch of the sound (increase or decrease) - and this serves as a clear means of creating an image in speech. (My cat’s name is Murka, but I call her Murochka. - Pronouncing an extended sound in the word “Murochka” in the upper range speaks of a kind, warm attitude towards the cat, in the lower range - the opposite attitude.)

Emphasis is an increase in the duration of a stressed syllable in a word.

In teacher speech, emphatic length is usually used to emphasize and highlight semantically important concepts.

Group 4 - spectral element: intonation timbre.

Timbre is the color or character of the sound of a voice. In the dictionary O.S. Akhmanova gives an interpretation to two terms: timbre I and timbre II. Timbre II is related to the intonation component. “Specific supersegmental coloring of speech, giving it certain expressive-emotional properties” (Akhmanova O.S.). It is necessary to distinguish

individual timbre and intonation timbre. Each person has a natural timbre of voice, which is why we distinguish people’s voices. This timbre is not an element of intonation. Natural, individual timbre depends solely on the anatomical structure of the speech apparatus. Intonation timbre (as a component of intonation) is generated by an arbitrary change in the shape of some resonators in this apparatus and is created by the interaction of range height and intensity. Timbre is involved in the expression of emotions, its semantic function is observed when depicting the properties of certain objects and phenomena of reality. The timbre coloring of speech can increase or decrease the effect of speech as a whole. Timbral coloring is one of the leading parameters that is assessed by listeners during the initial perception of sounding speech. It evokes a certain reaction in listeners: if the timbre reflects negative emotions, then, accordingly, a negative reaction. (Some studies of teachers’ speech reveal a far from rosy picture: negative emotions predominate in the intonation of pedagogical speech, so it is important for the future teacher to pay attention to the individual timbre of his voice and the ability to skillfully change the timbre coloring depending on the communication situation.)

Each sound has a characteristic color, or timbre. It is determined by the density, shape and size of the body brought into a state of vibration, and the characteristics of the environment in which it vibrates. Even the slightest difference in the structure and shape of vibrating bodies is so significant that in the whole world there are no two human voices that sound exactly the same.

Timbre is an additional articulatory-acoustic coloring of the voice, its coloring. In the oral cavity, as a result of greater or lesser tension in the speech organs and changes in the volume of the resonator, overtones are formed, that is, additional tones that give the main tone a special shade, a special color. Therefore, timbre is also called the “color” of the voice.

The character of timbre can be so diverse, and its perception is subjective, that in describing the characteristics of timbre they use the most various definitions, emphasizing: visual perception (light, dull, shiny); auditory (dull, vibrating, ringing, creaking); tactile (soft, cold, hard); associative (velvet, copper, metal); emotional (cheerful, joyful, enthusiastic, tender).

Timbre and rhythm are incredibly complex features in the prosodic analysis of spoken speech that require special study. There is as yet no satisfactory and reliable unit for describing timbre and rhythm. But the function of timbre and rhythm must be taken into account.

Intonation is closely related to the meaning, syntactic structure and rhythm of speech.

Rhythm is a uniform, natural alternation of commensurate and sensually perceptible elements (sound, speech, etc.).

The rhythm of speech is a uniform alternation of percussion and unstressed syllables, varying in duration and voice strength. If rhythm is considered as a temporary structure of any perceived processes, formed by accents, pauses, division into segments, their grouping, relationships in duration, etc., then the rhythm of speech is pronounced and audible accentuation and division, which do not always coincide with semantic division, graphically expressed by punctuation marks and spaces between words.

In physiology, poetry, linguistics and psycholinguistics it is customary to talk about the rhythm of speech.

Speech rhythm has a physiological and intellectual basis. As an element of sound, speech rhythm is based on the rhythm of breathing. As an element of the form of speech (performs a communicative function), rhythm correlates with meaning.

Intonation is connected with the sentence and with the syntagma; intonation is the most important means of dividing a sentence into syntagms or phrases. Elements of intonation: melody, stress, pause, rate of speech and duration of individual syllables; intonation acts in the language as a grammatical and expressive means.

Intonation acts in language as a grammatical and expressive means. The grammatical function of intonation is determined by the grammatical structure of the sentence. Thanks to intonation, homogeneous members of the sentence, introductory words, introductory sentences are determined, the members of the sentence and enumeration are generalized. With the help of intonation they stand out different types sentences: narrative, interrogative, incentive. Each language is characterized by its own intonation features, which are associated with the structural features of sentences. The grammatical function of intonation is associated with the use of grammatical functions of intonation, is associated with the use sound media by all native speakers of that language. The expressive function of intonation is associated with the sound characteristics of the individual speaking. Each intonation has 2 aspects:

Universal (manifests itself in the fact that in different languages there are certain similarities in the functions of individual components of intonation and there are even similarities in intonation structures)

National (characteristic of each language, each language has its own type of intonation).

Positional changes of sounds

Positional changes of consonants can be either at the end or at the beginning of a word. At the end of a word, a consonant may be deafened or the final consonant may drop out. At the beginning of a word, a prosthetic consonant can be inserted (acute - vostrii).

Positional changes of vowels: the position of a vowel in a stressed syllable is called a strong position, and in an unstressed syllable it is called a weak position. In a strong position, the vowel is stable, but in a weak position it undergoes significant changes, which are associated with weakening or reduction. Vowel reduction can be quantitative or qualitative. With quantitative vowels, they lose part of their length, they weaken, but do not change their quality. With high-quality reduction, not only a weakening of sounds occurs, but also a change in its characteristic features(Russian-English is widely represented).

Combinatorial changes in sounds (assimilation, accommodation, diaeresis, substitution, dissimilation)

1. Assimilation (similarity). During assimilation, some, and sometimes all, pronunciation features of one sound are likened to the features of the influencing sound. Assimilation can be complete or partial. With partial assimilation, some signs of sound (coat) change, and with complete assimilation, all signs of sound change. The sound becomes exactly the same as the sound that caused the assimilation.

Assimilation may vary in direction. If the previous sound influences the subsequent one, such assimilation is called progressive. If the subsequent sound affects the previous one, it is regressive.

It can be contact (2 adjacent sounds interact) and distant (separated by sounds).

Assimilation can be in relation to consonants with consonants, in relation to vowels with vowels (typical only for Turkic languages. Vowel endings are likened to the vowel of the root - synharmonism - Tatar language).

Assimilation is the assimilation of sounds of the same type, i.e. can interact according to with lie, vowel with vowel

2. If different types of sounds interact (vowel with consonant), such a change is called accommodation.

3. Dissimilation - dissimilarity. During dissimilation, one of 2 sounds similar in articulation loses its common characteristics.

On the basis of assimilation or dissimilation, diaeresis arises (abortion of sound; sun, holiday). Sometimes a separate syllable can be dropped - haplology, or a sound can be inserted - epenthesis.

4. Metathesis - mutual rearrangement of sounds (in common parlance, when borrowing).

5. Substitution - replacement when borrowing foreign language sound of native language.

Phonetic and historical alternations of sounds

Phonetic: determined by norms modern language, are not reflected in the letter (for example, haystack - haystacks).

Historical: cannot be explained by the norms of the modern phonetic system and they are always reflected in the letter (s-sh, t-ch, wear – wear)

The concept of phonemes. Phoneme options. Basic functions of phonemes. Phoneme positions. Development of the theory of phonemes in linguistics.

1. CONCEPT OF PHONEMS. PHONEME VARIANTS

During speech, sounds have various features in its sound. Some of these features do not affect the meaning of words or the form, while others affect the meaning or form. The unit of sound that is used to distinguish words and word forms is called a phoneme.

The concepts of phoneme and sound do not coincide:

The sounds of speech are something private, separate, and a phoneme is a combination of a whole series of sounds.

The phoneme is strict system, and the same sound in in different words can correspond to different phonemes.

Diphthongs, consisting of two sounds, represent one phoneme.

There may be cases when 2 phonemes sound like one sound (for example, children's)

There are cases when the phoneme is present, but there is no sound (for example, the sun)

It should be borne in mind that any combination of sounds acts as a single phoneme, that is, a phoneme can be considered the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language. It functions as a whole, even if it consists of two sounds. Each phoneme is a set of essential features that it distinguishes from other phonemes (for example, the sound t - all features represent a single content of the phoneme). The features by which one phoneme differs from another are called differential.

A phoneme is the minimum unit of the sound structure of a language, which serves to form and distinguish significant units of language.

This definition makes it possible to establish which sounds are independent phonemes, and which are varieties of the same phoneme. Independent phonemes are sounds that are used in the same position, changing meanings (ship – sheep). Sounds that are used in the same phonetic conditions do not change the meaning of the word and are variants of the phoneme. Phoneme variants preserve it essential features, have the same phonological content.

2. PHONEME FUNCTIONS

The phoneme has 2 functions that are associated with the characteristics of the process of speech communication.

The function of perception is the perceptual function. Thanks to this function, phonemes are a kind of standards with the help of which we recognize and perceive speech.

Distinctive – significative. In this case, phonemes are the distinguishers of words and word forms (tom-dom).

The named functions are required in each phoneme, they are interconnected and presuppose the presence of each other in the process of communication.

3. PHONEME POSITIONS

In live speech, a phoneme falls into various pronunciation conditions - positions. Positions can be strong and weak. Strong positions are positions favorable for the phoneme to perform its functions. In strong position, a phoneme is opposed to any other phoneme. In a strong position, the phoneme is least dependent on phonetic conditions, and the significative function is clearly manifested. The phoneme always appears in a strong position in isolation, appears in its basic form. The basic appearance of a phoneme is how it is pronounced in isolation. But not in all positions phonemes are capable of performing a signifying function. In some positions they lose this ability, and the phoneme is neutralized. The position in which phonemes are neutralized is called weak position. IN English language end of the word - strong position(white, wide)

4. PHONEME SYSTEM

In this system, phonemes are grouped based on their quality: a system of vowel phonemes and a system of consonant phonemes. The systematic nature of the sound side of the language is manifested in the fact that the number of phonemes is strictly limited. Its constituent units are closely related to each other. Phonemes are grouped because their various features are contrasted. Such groups may include different quantity phoneme pairs. Oppositions of phonemes are called phoneme oppositions. Members of the opposition can be opposed on one basis (p-b), or several (a-b).

The phoneme system does not remain unchanged throughout the history of a given language. Changes that affect the phoneme system are called phonemic. The most common phenomenon is the emergence of new phonemes and the loss of old phonemes, the change of one of the variants of a phoneme into an independent phoneme. Phoneme systems influence borrowed words. Any borrowed word, being rearranged, changes its outside under the influence of the phoneme system of the borrowing language.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORY OF PHONEMS IN LINGUISTICS

There are 2 directions - the school of traditional teaching about the phoneme (Shcherba school, Leningrad and Moscow Phonological School)

The Leningrad school believes that a phoneme is sound type, and sound types distinguish between words and word forms. There are few sound types in the language; they can be listed by referring to the alphabet, i.e. letters perform the same function as a phoneme, but differ from each other in their material side

There are more sounds in living speech than phonemes. And sounds are combined into types based on acoustic and articulatory proximity. This sound type is a phoneme

The Moscow school does not distinguish between the concept of phoneme and sound

Sounds are combined into phonemes according to the functions of community; if sounds perform the same function, they are the same phoneme, but both schools are united in emphasizing the meaning of phonemes in general characteristics concepts of phonemes.