In what century did natural farming appear? Meaning of "subsistence farming"

Political Science: Dictionary-Reference Book

type of economy in which production is aimed at satisfying the producer’s own needs.

Modern economic dictionary. 1999

NATURAL ECONOMY

The medieval world in terms, names and titles

Natural economy

type of farming common in Western Europe. in Europe Early Middle Ages; its basis was small peasant production, combining agriculture and crafts due to the low level of development of agricultural technology. Under the dominance of N.H. products of labor are produced mainly to satisfy the needs of the producers themselves, and not for sale. With the emergence and deepening of the second social division of labor (separation of crafts from agriculture), n.h. was replaced by small-scale goods.

Dictionary of economic terms

Natural economy

economy that meets its needs through own production.

Scythians. Byzantium. Black Sea region. Dictionary of historical terms and names

Natural economy

a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced primarily to satisfy the needs of the producers themselves, and not for sale on the market. Trade and exchange are carried out as auxiliary activities.

encyclopedic Dictionary

Natural economy

a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced to satisfy the producers themselves, and not for sale. With the emergence and deepening of the social division of labor, commodity production.

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Natural economy

This name refers to an economy that, within its own boundaries, produces all the economic goods that its members need. In this sense, the cash economy is opposed to the exchange economy, in particular the money economy, which arises with the development of the division of labor; then each farm is limited only to the production of a certain category of products sold on the market, and the proceeds from the sale are used to purchase necessary consumer goods. N. economy in its pure form eliminates the need for exchange, because the needs of its members are satisfied within the economy itself; There is also no social division of occupations here, because in each farm all the labor processes necessary to satisfy the various needs of the members of the farm are carried out; As for the technical division of labor, it is also found in the national economy, at least, for example, in the form of distribution of labor between members of a family or clan, in accordance with the strengths of each. The main attention in the national economy is paid to the use value of products and the degree of difficulty in obtaining them; the concept of exchange value has not yet been developed. In such a pure form, farming is found only at the most primitive stages of culture, when people have the simplest needs, satisfied in a meager and crude way (hunting life). With the growth of culture and especially with the increase in labor productivity, the element of barter is introduced into the economy. On the one hand, some surpluses of own production are created, willingly exchanged for items of convenience, luxury and whim that cannot be produced within the economy (for example, in ancient times, Indian aromatic herbs, spices, gems and metals). Nevertheless, we have the right to continue to call these farms N. as long as their production mainly aimed at meeting the needs of members of these farms. The N. economy, with some element of barter, existed throughout classical antiquity (the Odyssey paints a picture of it in a more or less primitive form), when, within the “oikos” (household) economy of the ancient citizen, slaves and women produced all household items ; it dominated during the Middle Ages both in feudal estates that used serf labor and in villages inhabited by dependent peasants. Development of trade and industry since the discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries. for the first time gave a strong impetus to the spread of the barter money economy; nevertheless in landowners' estates, in the peasant households of N. the economy continued to dominate until early XIX V. Only from this time does it begin to give way to a money economy, under the influence of the rapid progress of industry and the reduction in cost of factory products, due to an increase in population and differentiation of occupations. In Russia, farming dominated the estates of landowners and peasant households until the era of the liberation of the peasants. We can find typical features of such farms in Aksakov ("The Childhood Years of Bagrov the Grandson", etc.), in Goncharov ("Oblomov"), in Saltykov ("Poshekhon Antiquity"), etc. With the liberation of the peasants, the displacement of the N. economy begins to be noticed. monetary; peasants gradually stop weaving their own fabrics, tanning leather, felting felt boots, etc., preferring to buy factory-made products. In N.'s landowners' estates, farming has almost receded into the realm of legend. To this day, there are writers who consider the dominance of the national economy desirable (for example, Count L. Tolstoy); They are attracted by the self-satisfaction that prevails in such farms, independence from outside influences, and versatility of activity. However, since the transition from a national economy to an exchange economy is associated with the development of the division of labor and the progress of productivity, it constitutes a huge step forward, giving a person the opportunity to satisfy his needs in an incomparably more complete and multifaceted way. The dark sides of the existing money economy are determined by completely different reasons and could be eliminated without returning to the cash economy.

An important place in economic theory is given to analysisforms of production organization. In the very general view form of production meanstype of organization of economic activity of people ensuring the real functioning of the economy. In other words,a form of production is a way of existence of an economic system.

In the economic literature, traditionally identified as the main two forms: natural economy And commodity production . Natural and commercial production differ primarily in the following ways: signs : development or underdevelopment of the social division of labor; closedness or openness of the economy; economic form of the manufactured product; a way to resolve the contradictions between production and consumption.

Natural economy - this is a way of organizing economic activity in which production is aimed directly at satisfying the manufacturer’s own needs, i.e. On-farm consumption takes place.

The society in which it dominates consists of a mass of economic units (families, communities, estates). Each unit relies on its own production resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life. She performs all types of economic work, ranging from mining different types raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. Work in subsistence farming

Subsistence farming has the following main features::

· manual universal labor predominates , based on a primitive technological base (hoe, shovel, rake, etc.) and excluding its division into separate types;

· isolation (autarkic form of management), lack of communication with other economic units (each unit relies on its own resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life);

· the product produced does not take the form of a commodity and forms a fund of subsistence for the producer himself;

· the presence of direct economic links between production and consumption : they develop according to the formula "production - distribution - consumption", i.e. the created products are distributed among production participants and, bypassing the exchange stage, are used for personal and productive consumption;

· conservatism, traditionalism, limited production and consumption , relatively constant scales and sectoral proportions of production, causing slow rates of economic development.

For your information. Subsistence farming - historicallythe first type of organization of human economic activity . It arose in ancient times, during the periodformationprimitive communal standing . In its pure form, natural economy existed only among primitive peoples who did not know the division of labor, exchange and private property.

In pre-capitalist formations natural farming occupied a predominant place in social production, although in ancient timesslave states There was already a fairly developed commodity production. Subsistence farming is one of the main featuresfeudal economy . The natural form here was appropriated by the feudal lordsurplus product . The latter acted in the form of various natural duties and payments. The economy of the peasants dependent on the feudal lords was also subsistence.

At the same time, the dominance of subsistence farming in pre-capitalist economic systems did not exclude the development of commodity-money relations. As productive forces develop, subsistence farming is replaced by commodity production. Under capitalism it is essentially destroyed, although its vestiges remain here.

Elements of natural farming also take place in modern developed countries. where commodity-money relations dominate. This is manifested, in particular, inaspirationsome industrial and agricultural enterprises, business associations, regionsto self-sufficiency. Some states are also conducting economic policy, known as"autarky"- creation of a closed, self-sufficient economy within the country.

Subsistence farming is widespreadV developing countries Oh . More than half of the population is employed in subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in underdeveloped countries. According to experts, subsistence farming will occupy a significant place in their economy for a long time.

The main disadvantage of subsistence farming is that it does not allow achieving high labor productivity, ensures the satisfaction of needs that are insignificant in volume and monotonous in quality.

The development of factors of production led to a deepening of the social division of labor and an increase in its productivity. This was the objective reason for the transition from subsistence farming to commercial farming. If natural economy prevailed at the pre-industrial stage of production, then at the industrial stage the commodity form of economic organization became dominant .

Commodity production - this is a form of organization of social production in which economic relations between people are manifested through the purchase and sale of the products of their labor on the market.

Commodity production arose during the period of decomposition of the primitive system, when arose first major social division of labor , i.e. separation of pastoral tribes, or separation of cattle breeding from agriculture(Fig. 2).

Rice. 2. Types of social division of labor

Commodity production is being further developed as a result second major social division of labor , i.e. as a result separation of crafts from agriculture. The emphasis on craft contributed to the further improvement of tools.

For your information. Invention of the loom, blacksmith's bellows, potter's wheel etc. muchincreased labor productivity . Craftsmen, in turn, began to offer more advanced tools for farmers. This made labor easier, increased its efficiency and contributed to the creation of a stable mass (value) of surplus product. Therefore, natural exchange became more and more permanent.

Further expansion of exchange led to the emergence of intermediary trade and the emergence of merchants. This third social division of labor . It consolidated the emerging natural exchange between individual economic entities, facilitated the sale of surplus products (surplus product), as well as the supply of the subsistence economy with individual handicraft products (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. The place of trade in the system of economic relations

In addition, trade allowed closed economic units to get acquainted with the latest products and consolidated social idea about the advantage of narrower specialization.

« Commodity production represents an economic system in which products are produced by separate, isolated producers, each of whom specializes in the production of one particular product, so that in order to satisfy social needs, the purchase and sale of products (which therefore become goods) on the market is necessary.”

Based on this definition, we can distinguish characteristic features, signs of commodity production.

Firstly , commodity production is based on social division of labor, which assumes specialization of manufacturers in the manufacture of certain products.

In the history of society, three major social divisions of labor are known: the separation of pastoral tribes, the separation of crafts from agriculture, and the emergence of the merchant class. At the current stage, the allocation of research and development work (R&D) is considered as the fourth major social division of labor.

As the productive forces develop, the social division of labor deepens. The latter leads to the fact that farms specializing in the production of any product cannot fully use it for their needs and at the same time satisfy all their needs with it. This determines the need for exchange, and with it, commodity production. The social division of labor alone is not enough for the emergence of commodity production. History knows communities where there was a social division of labor, but there was no commodity production.

Secondly , products of labor become commodities only when they are produced for exchange independent, economically isolated producers. The economic isolation of commodity producers as different owners is the reason for the emergence of commodity production. Only the exchange between owners becomes commodity. Economic isolation presupposes the presence of a strongly expressed economic interest of an economic entity, its freedom to choose the type of economic activity, ownership of the product produced, and certain obligations to society, the state and partners.

Third , the product of labor takes the form goods, because the initially produced for the purpose of subsequent exchange, selling to other people. For this reason, commercial farming is open system : products are produced not for own consumption, but for sale, i.e. go beyond the boundaries of the economic unit.

Glossary of Historical Terms - Subsistence Economy

Through them, the structure of social needs is revealed, which distributes the resources available in society. Such general forms of economic organization of production include natural and commodity production. Some economists oppose natural farming and commodity production to each other and consider them opposites. Others believe that they have a common economic basis - private ownership of the means of production and a common goal - meeting the needs of the owners and their families. At the same time, they point out the differences between subsistence and commercial farming.

Subsistence farming predominates in many developing countries. More than half of the population is employed in subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in underdeveloped countries. According to experts, subsistence farming will occupy a significant place in their economy for a long time. Many peoples of Africa, Indian tribes of Latin America, and Southeast Asia have preserved diverse forms of subsistence farming, in particular hunting and fishing, sometimes in combination with primitive forms of land cultivation, often in the form of nomadic cattle breeding.

Natural and commercial production. Product and its properties

The history of economics knows two main types of organization of production: natural and commodity. They are directly opposite to each other and differ in the following characteristics:

a) the development or underdevelopment of the social division of labor;

b) closed or open economy;

c) the economic form of the manufactured product;

d) types of economic connections between the production and consumption of goods.

Natural production. Organizational and economic relations between producers and consumers are most easily established in subsistence farming.

Subsistence production is a system of organizational and economic relations in which people create products to satisfy their own needs. This system has the following specific features:

closed farming

· universal labor

· direct economic relations

Main features of subsistence farming.

For natural production, firstly, the nature of manual labor is universal, excluding its division into separate types; each person performs all the basic work. Their material basis is the simplest equipment (hoe, shovel, rake, etc.) and handicraft tools. Naturally, under such conditions, labor activity is unproductive, and production output cannot increase significantly.

Secondly, subsistence farming is a closed system of organizational and economic relations. The society in which it dominates consists of a mass of economic units (families, communities, estates) separated and economically isolated from each other. Each unit relies on its own production resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life. Performs all types of economic work, starting from the extraction of various types of raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption.

This feature of economic organization manifests itself as a tendency in cases where the naturalization of production occurs within the boundaries of modern industrial and agricultural enterprises, business associations and regions (although a developed commodity economy may exist within the state). All such production units are curtailing their economic ties with other parts of the national economy and striving to independently provide themselves with everything they need.

Sometimes a similar trend covers the entire society: individual states pursue an economic policy known as “autarky.” Autarky (Greek autarkeia - self-satisfaction) - the creation of a closed, self-sufficient economy within one country. This is accompanied by a severance of traditional economic ties with other countries. The desire for autarky also manifests itself when high protective customs duties (monetary fees on imported and exported goods) are created, which sharply limits the import of foreign goods into the country. Something similar sometimes happens in closed international organizations pursuing the task of self-sufficiency and refusal to purchase abroad the most important industrial, raw materials and food products.

Thirdly, the subsistence farming system is characterized by direct economic connections between production and consumption. They develop according to the formula: “production - distribution - consumption”. That is, the created products are distributed among all participants in production and, bypassing their exchange, go into personal and productive consumption. This direct connection ensures sustainability of subsistence farming.

Subsistence farming is historically the first type of economic organization of society. It arose during the period of formation of the primitive communal system, when branches of production appeared: agriculture and cattle breeding. In its purest form, natural economy existed only among primitive peoples, when they did not know the social division of labor and the exchange of products between different farms.

Subsistence farming dominated the economy, which was based on a system of personal (non-economic) dependence. It dominated the slave states, and also constituted one of the main features of the feudal economy. The landowner's wealth was formed through various in-kind duties and payments. The economy of the feudal-dependent peasant is also natural.

Due to the dominance of the natural economy and its low technical equipment, the law of its functioning is the repetition of the production process in the same size, on an unchanged basis. Industry proportions (the relationships between existing types of products) were reproduced without significant changes over the centuries and acted for producers as a mandatory economic norm, consecrated by custom. And the factors of production were in a state of stagnation.

In Western literature, the subsistence farming system is called traditional economics. This partially characterizes the features of this system: a) the dominance of the custom of creating the same thing for consumption;

b) a sharp limitation of technical progress; c) stagnation in socio-economic relations; d) upholding by society the immutability of the existing way of life.

In modern conditions, subsistence farming has largely survived in developing countries, where pre-industrial production predominates. Moreover, such an economy coexists with commodity production that supplies products to the world market.

So, subsistence farming predominated during the longest pre-industrial stage of production. At the industrial stage, the second type of economic organization became dominant.

Commodity production- a system of organizational and economic relations in which healthy foods created for sale on the market. Such a system has the following specific features that determine: what to create, how to use factors of production for this, and for whom the products are intended.

Main features of commercial farming:

1.Open farming.

2.Division of labor.

3. Indirect economic ties.

Firstly, the production of goods, is based on the social division of labor, which develops between individual economic units. Its development presupposes the progress of production:

the growth of qualifications and skills of workers, as well as the invention of machines that facilitate and reduce labor, allow one person to do the work of several. An increase in the output of goods at a specialized enterprise creates the opportunity and necessity to exchange their excess quantity for a large mass of other useful things.

Commodity farming gives wide scope to the general economic law of division of labor. In accordance with this law, the economy progresses due to increasing qualitative differentiation (division) of labor activity. As a result, several forms of division of labor arise: a) international (between countries); b) general (between large sectors of the national economy: agriculture, industry, etc.); c) special (division within large industries into sub-sectors, types of production at individual enterprises) and d) individual (within enterprises - into their different divisions).

Of course, a single differentiation of labor in an enterprise associated with the unfinished production of some part finished product, cannot generate commodity exchange. Such an exchange is a consequence of other types of division of labor: international (foreign trade), as well as general and special (domestic trade).

Secondly, commercial farming is an open system of organizational and economic relations. Here workers create healthy products not for their own consumption, but to sell them to other people. The entire flow of new things, as a rule, goes beyond the boundaries of each production unit and rushes to the market to satisfy customer demand.

Thirdly, the commodity economy is characterized by indirect, mediated connections between production and consumption. They develop according to the formula: production - exchange - consumption. Manufactured products first enter the market for exchange for other products (or money) and only then enter the sphere of consumption. The market confirms or does not confirm the need to manufacture these products for sale. It is through market exchange that economic relations are established between producers and consumers of goods.

Consequently, the development of the division of labor, the openness and market nature of economic relations removed those obstacles to the progress of the economy to which the natural economy doomed it. The potential capabilities of the opposite commodity production are such that it is characterized by the law of expanded reproduction.

Product and its properties. The primary property of a product is its quality, which is what a natural product has - usefulness. However, it would be unlawful to completely identify this property in natural and commodity production.

§ 1. NATURAL AND COMMODITY ECONOMY

It’s one thing to create a product for domestic consumption in a closed economy. It is quite another matter to intend it for sale on the market. Naturally, in a commodity economy, as the welfare of the population grows, buyers' demands for the quality of goods naturally increase. Moreover, in the current conditions, an increasing number of products are being updated and qualitatively improved in accordance with marketing requirements (marketing will be discussed later).

There is hardly any need to prove that if a product does not have utility, then no one needs it.

It is obvious that we recognize as a commodity not a free product of nature, but something for which human labor has been expended, requiring appropriate compensation.

Goods cannot be products prepared for one’s own needs (as in subsistence farming). They will be things created for other people, i.e. public utilities.

Sold on the market useful thing assumes equivalent compensation.

This means that a commodity is a social utility created by labor, intended for equivalent exchange on the market for another commodity.

From this definition it is clear: a commodity, when exchanged for an equivalent product, receives exchange value on the market. Exchange value is the ability of a commodity to be exchanged for other useful things in certain proportions (ratios) of exchange.

In exchange, heterogeneous goods are presented (cloth, table, meat - as in the example given here). After all, no one sells any good of a certain type for the same utility. Useful things are not comparable in quantitative terms: tissues are measured in square meters, tables - in pieces, meat - in kilograms, etc. What, then, is equal in exchange proportion?

Another outstanding thinker Ancient Greece Aristotle noted; exchange is impossible without equality, and equality without commensurability. However, what lies at the basis of commensurability, no one could say for more than two thousand years. Only in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Economic theory gave the long-awaited answer: the general content of exchange equality is the same value embodied in all goods.

Thus, a product has two properties: utility and value. This characteristic properties of the product were quite sufficient for a simple and developed commodity economy until the second half of the 20th century. But in Lately in the conditions of a multi-structured Western economy, a new classification of products was required.

Subsistence farming and its main features

Many peoples of Africa, Indian tribes of Latin America, and Southeast Asia have preserved diverse forms of subsistence farming, in particular hunting and fishing, sometimes in combination with primitive forms of land cultivation, often in the form of nomadic cattle breeding.

In developing countries, such socio-economic structures coexist as communal farming, patriarchal-natural, feudal, small-scale, private capitalist, state-capitalist production and the public sector. Of these, typical subsistence economies are communal farming, patriarchal subsistence production and feudal farming.

Community farming is based on communal ownership of land and means of labor, simple cooperation, equal distribution and extremely low consumption and is mainly a subsistence economy. Patriarchal-natural forms of economy predominate in many developing countries, especially in Africa, and are based on private ownership of the means of production (except land) and the personal labor of the peasant. The land, as a rule, belongs to tribal leaders, feudal lords, and the church. The majority of peasants are allocated land or rent it under enslaving conditions and conduct subsistence farming on it. Natural form management is characterized by primitive agriculture, producing products mainly to meet their own needs. The economy of these types of countries is at a very low level: there are almost no capitalist enterprises or a local export sector. Commodity relations have not yet penetrated very well into these countries; subsistence farming has a limiting effect on the domestic market.

In some countries it is significant specific gravity feudal structure, based on feudal ownership of land and various forms of pre-capitalist rent. Production is carried out on the basis of primitive tools of labor of peasants exploited by feudal lords.

The main disadvantage of subsistence farming is that it does not allow for high labor productivity and provides only minimal conditions for survival. Therefore, natural economy, as the very first form of organization of economic life, was destroyed by such a powerful economic mechanism of human civilization as commodity production.

Subsistence and commercial farming

I., Complete collection of works, 5th ed., vol. 3, p. 21≈22). N. x. arose in ancient times and dominated at a stage when there was no social division of labor, exchange and private property. In a slave-owning society and under feudalism, N. x. remained dominant, despite the development of exchange and commodity-money relations. K. Marx pointed out that N. x. prevails on the basis of any system of personal dependence, both slave and serf (see K. Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 24, p. 544). For N. x. characterized by isolation, limited, traditional and fragmented production, routine technology and slow pace of development. With the deepening of the social division of labor N. x. gradually being replaced by commodity production. Under capitalism, peasant farms retain the features and remnants of modern agriculture. During the transition period from capitalism to socialism in some countries, N. x. is preserved as one of the economic structures. Among those that existed in Russia immediately after October revolution V. I. Lenin called 1917 socio-economic structures “... patriarchal, that is, largely natural, peasant farm"(Complete collection of works, 5th ed., vol. 36, p. 296).

N. x. persisted for a long time in economically backward areas globe(Asia, Africa, Latin America), where, before colonization by Europeans, tribal or feudal relations dominated. In countries that freed themselves from colonial dependence (especially in countries with a “capitalist orientation”), in the mid-20th century. 50≈60% of the population is employed in subsistence or semi-subsistence farming.

Lit.: Marx K., Capital, Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23≈25; Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, Complete. collection cit., 5th ed., vol. 3; Problems of industrialization of developing countries, M., 1971.

T.K. Pajitnova.

Theories of value.

Product and its properties.

Commodity farming.

Subsistence farming and its characteristics.

Topic 6. Commodity production.

1, 2,5,6,9,10,11, 14

TASK SHEET

What are the material and intangible spheres of economic activity?

Questions for the lecture

1.Describe the natural and social environments of people’s lives.

2. How are labor and natural resources interconnected?

Natural economy

How do forms of ownership influence entrepreneurial activity?

1. All points of the lecture plan are presented as separate questions for the seminar lesson.

2.Using an economic dictionary, write down and learn the following terms:

Economic theory normative -

3. Prepare abstracts on the following topics:

7.Types of economic activity

LITERATURE:

INDEPENDENT WORK _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Two are known basic type economic organizations: subsistence and commercial farming.

Natural economy - this type of organization of social production in which the products of labor were used to satisfy the personal needs of direct producers and members of their families, ᴛ.ᴇ. for use within an economic unit - clan, tribe, patriarchal family, community, latifundia, feud.

It is worth saying that the following features are characteristic of subsistence farming:

Closedness;

— limited and fragmented production;

- traditionality;

- slow pace of development.

It was based on manual universal labor and existed in its purest form among primitive peoples who did not know the social division of labor and did not exchange their products with each other. The state of the productive forces and their organization were characterized by extreme primitiveness; the set of products created did not change for centuries and were produced in almost the same sizes from year to year (simple reproduction).

Three main questions WHAT?, HOW?, FOR WHOM? - the owners of the farm (they are also workers) decided, focusing on the needs of their farm (the patriarchal family). Established customs and the will of the leader played a major role in subsistence farming.

As the dominant form, natural farming has long passed the path measured out for it by history. At the same time, the connection according to the principle of “produced - consumed” (without exchange and social distribution) turned out to be very stable, its elements can be seen in modern society at both the micro and macro levels. An example of subsistence farming at the micro level is gardening, which is highly encouraged by the state during periods of economic turmoil. An example of naturalization at the macro level is politics autarchy, which involves the creation of a self-sufficient economy within one country, aimed at self-sufficiency. Such a policy leads to self-isolation of the country from the world market, to a lag in economic development, does not ensure economic independence and is therefore reactionary.

Subsistence farming is an obstacle to socio-economic progress. In parallel with it, commodity production operates, and in the late Middle Ages it becomes dominant.

Lexical meaning: definition

The general stock of vocabulary (from the Greek Lexikos) is a complex of all the basic semantic units of one language. The lexical meaning of a word reveals the generally accepted idea of an object, property, action, feeling, abstract phenomenon, impact, event, and the like. In other words, it determines what a given concept means in mass consciousness. As soon as an unknown phenomenon becomes clear, specific signs, or awareness of the object arises, people assign it a name (sound-letter shell), or more precisely, a lexical meaning.

Unified State Exam. Story. Task No. 24. Points of view. Economy of Ancient Rus' - subsistence farming

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In economic science, two forms of social economy (production) are identified as the main ones: natural economy and commodity economy. Subsistence and commodity production differ, first of all, according to the following characteristics: the development or underdevelopment of the social division of labor; closedness or openness of the economy; economic form of the manufactured product; a way to resolve the contradictions between production and consumption.

Historically, the first form of social economy was subsistence farming.

A subsistence economy is an economy that satisfies all its needs through self-production.

Characteristics subsistence farming are:

1) isolation (autarkic form of management), which manifests itself in the fact that each economic unit (family, community or estate) relies on its own resources and provides itself with everything necessary for life; the product produced does not take the form of a commodity, but forms a fund of life funds for the manufacturer himself, there are no economic ties with other economic units;

2) the use of universal labor, which means that each worker performs all types of work, as a rule, manually, using primitive technologies, using simple tools (hoes, shovels) and handicraft tools, which leads to extremely low labor productivity;

3) direct economic connections between production and consumption, lack of commodity exchange;

4) vertical economic relations (owner - overseer - forced laborer) with the inherent dependence of the forced laborer on the owner of the land and capital;

5) non-economic forced labor using various types violence, when forced people, for example, were driven to work under pain of physical harm.

Subsistence farming is distinguished by conservatism, traditionalism, limited and constant scales of production and consumption (simple reproduction), and relatively stable sectoral proportions of production, which determine the slow pace of economic development.

This form of economy arose in ancient times, during the period of the formation of the primitive communal system, when human production activity began and the first branches of the economy appeared - agriculture and cattle breeding. In its pure form, natural economy existed only among primitive peoples who did not know the division of labor, exchange and private property.

It is important to note that subsistence farming is also present in modern economic systems. More than half of the population is employed in subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in underdeveloped countries. According to experts, subsistence farming will occupy a significant place in their economy for a long time. Elements of natural economy take place both in modern developed countries and in the Russian economy. So, small farmers, peasants on their personal plots, as well as city dwellers in their dachas, predominantly conduct subsistence farming, consuming most of the produced labor products in their family.

The development of factors of production led to a deepening of the social division of labor, an increase in its productivity, and the formation of surplus products that the owner could sell or exchange for other goods.

Division of labor is differentiation, specialization of labor activity, leading to the identification and implementation of its various types.

With the vertical division of labor, it is divided into levels, for example, production and production management are separated. With the horizontal division of labor, types of work are divided within one level, for example, manufacturing, processing of product parts and assembly of the product from these parts are distinguished.

The division of labor and economic isolation of producers who make decisions independently at their own peril and risk, based on personal interests, were the objective reasons for the transition from a subsistence economy to a commodity economy, in which economic relations between people are manifested through the purchase and sale of the products of their labor on the market .

Commodity farming is a type of farming in which production is market-oriented.

In a commodity economy, goods are created for exchange and sale. The characteristic features of commercial farming are:

1) social division of labor, leading to qualitative differentiation, specialization of people’s labor activities, contributing to the improvement of various types of labor and technologies for the production of goods;

2) openness of the economy, meaning that products are produced not for personal consumption, but for sale to other persons on the market;

3) indirect, mediated economic connections, when production and consumption are interconnected through market exchange;

4) horizontal economic relations based on contracts, while the producer and consumer have economic freedom (the right to choose what to produce and what to buy);

5) the absence of non-economic coercion to work, meaning that each worker feels the need and material interest in work, increasing production output and qualitative improvement manufactured goods.

One of the indisputable advantages of commodity economy is its inextricable connection with the progress of technology, technology and other elements of the productive forces. It is highly adaptable to different economic systems, in each of them serves the implementation of those forms of ownership that are characteristic of them.

Simple (underdeveloped) commodity production is characterized by the social division of labor; private ownership of the means of production and products of labor; personal labor of the owner on the means of production; satisfying social needs through the purchase and sale of labor products; economic connection between people through the market. In other words, simple commodity production is the production of products for exchange by independent private small commodity producers - peasants and artisans. Developed commodity production differs from simple production in that not only all products of labor, but also factors of production (land, labor, capital, entrepreneurial abilities, information) become goods. Market relations become universal, and producers are separated from the means of production.

natural economy

Natural economy

type of economy in which production is aimed at satisfying the producer’s own needs. “Under a natural economy, society consisted of a mass of homogeneous economic units... and each such unit carried out all types of economic work, starting from the extraction of various types of raw materials and ending with their final preparation for consumption” (V.I. Lenin, Complete collection of works, 5th ed., vol. 3, pp. 21≈22). N. x. arose in ancient times and dominated at a stage when there was no social division of labor, exchange and private property. In a slave-owning society and under feudalism, N. x. remained dominant, despite the development of exchange and commodity-money relations. K. Marx pointed out that N. x. prevails on the basis of any system of personal dependence, both slave and serf (see Marx and F. Engels, Works, 2nd ed., vol. 24, p. 544). For N. x. characterized by isolation, limited, traditional and fragmented production, routine technology and slow pace of development. With the deepening of the social division of labor N. x. gradually being replaced by commodity production. Under capitalism, peasant farms retain the features and remnants of modern agriculture. During the transition period from capitalism to socialism in some countries, N. x. is preserved as one of the economic structures. Among the socio-economic structures that existed in Russia immediately after the October Revolution of 1917, V.I. Lenin named “... patriarchal, that is, largely natural, peasant farming” (Complete collection of works, 5th ed., vol. 36 , p. 296).

N. x. persisted for a long time in economically backward areas of the globe (Asia, Africa, Latin America), where, before colonization by Europeans, tribal or feudal relations prevailed. In countries that freed themselves from colonial dependence (especially in countries with a “capitalist orientation”), in the mid-20th century. 50≈60% of the population is employed in subsistence or semi-subsistence farming.

T.K. Pajitnova.

Wikipedia

Natural economy

legumes in Democratic Republic Congo (province of North Kivu) The main features of the subsistence economy are the insignificance of its participation in the interregional division of labor, up to economic isolation from the outside world (autarky) with self-sufficiency in the means of production and labor, allowing it to satisfy all needs from its own resources.

The development of the productive forces of society and the deepening of the interregional division of labor objectively prepare the conditions for the replacement of a subsistence economy with a commodity economy, where the specialization of producers in the production of one particular product develops, covering ever larger territories.

In slave society and feudalism, subsistence farming remained dominant, despite the development of exchange and commodity-money relations. In feudal society, the dominance of subsistence farming serves as one of the prerequisites for maintaining feudal fragmentation.

Subsistence farming has survived to this day in economically backward areas of the globe (Asia, Africa, Latin America), where tribal or feudal relations dominated before colonization by Europeans. In countries that freed themselves from colonial dependence, in the middle of the 20th century, 50-60% of the population was employed in subsistence or semi-subsistence farming.

In modern Russia, subsistence farming is represented by the personal subsidiary plots of peasants and the garden plots of urban residents.

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