The Holy Roman Empire is a state that existed from 962 to 1806. His story is very interesting. The founding of the Holy Roman Empire occurred in 962. It was carried out by King Otto I. He was the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The state existed until 1806 and was a feudal-theocratic country with a complex hierarchy. The image below is the area of the state around the beginning of the 17th century.
According to the thoughts of its founder, the German king, the empire created by Charlemagne was to be revived. However, the idea of Christian unity, which had been present in the Roman state since the very beginning of its Christianization, that is, since the reign of Constantine the Great, who died in 337, was largely forgotten by the 7th century. However, the church, which was heavily influenced by Roman institutions and laws, did not forget about this idea.
St. Augustine's idea
St. Augustine at one time undertook a critical development in his treatise entitled “On the City of God” of pagan ideas about an eternal and universal monarchy. Medieval thinkers interpreted this teaching in a political aspect, more positively than its author himself. They were encouraged to do this by comments on the Book of Daniel of the Church Fathers. According to them, the Roman Empire will be the last of the great powers, which will perish only with the coming of the Antichrist to earth. Thus, the formation of the Holy Roman Empire came to symbolize the unity of Christians.
History of the title
The term itself denoting this state appeared rather late. Immediately after Charles was crowned, he took advantage of an awkward and lengthy title, which was soon discarded. It contained the words “emperor, ruler of the Roman Empire.”
All his successors called themselves Emperor Augustus (without territorial specification). Over time, it was assumed that the former Roman Empire would become a power, and then the whole world. Therefore, Otto II is sometimes called Emperor Augustus of the Romans. And then, since the time of Otto III, this title is already indispensable.
History of the name of the state
The phrase “Roman Empire” itself began to be used as the name of the state from the middle of the 10th century, and was finally established in 1034. We must not forget that the Byzantine emperors also considered themselves the successors of the Roman Empire, so the assignment of this name by the German kings led to some diplomatic complications.
The definition “Sacred” is found in the documents of Frederick I Barbarossa from 1157. In sources from 1254 the full designation (“Holy Roman Empire”) took root. We find the same name in German in the documents of Charles IV; since 1442 the words “German Nation” have been added to it, first in order to distinguish the German lands from the Roman Empire.
In the decree of Frederick III, issued in 1486, this mention is made of “universal peace”, and since 1512 the final form has been approved - the “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation”. It existed until 1806, until its collapse. The approval of this form occurred during the reign of Maximilian, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (reign from 1508 to 1519).
Carolingian emperors
The medieval theory of the so-called Divine State originated from the earlier Carolingian period. In the second half of the 8th century, the Frankish kingdom, created by Pepin and his son Charlemagne, included most of the territory of Western Europe. This made this state suitable for the role of spokesman for the interests of the Holy See. In this role he was replaced by the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman).
Having crowned Charlemagne with the imperial crown in 800, on December 25, Pope Leo III decided to break ties with Constantinople. He created the Western Empire. The political interpretation of the power of the Church as a continuation of the (ancient) Empire thereby received its form of expression. It was based on the idea that one political ruler should rise above the world, who acts in accordance with the Church, which is also common to all. Moreover, both sides had their own spheres of influence, which were established by God.
Such a holistic idea of the so-called Divine State was realized almost in full during his reign by Charlemagne. Although it disintegrated under his grandchildren, the tradition of the forefather continued to be preserved in the minds of the forefather, which led to the establishment in 962 of Otto I of a special education. It later received the name "Holy Roman Empire". This is the state we are talking about in this article.
German emperors
Otto, Holy Roman Emperor, held power over the most powerful state in Europe.
He was able to revive the empire by doing what Charlemagne did in his time. But the possessions of this emperor were, however, significantly smaller than those that belonged to Charles. They included mainly German lands, as well as the territory of central and northern Italy. Limited sovereignty was extended to some uncivilized border areas.
However, the imperial title did not give the kings of Germany greater powers, although they theoretically stood above the royal houses in Europe. Emperors ruled in Germany using administrative mechanisms that already existed. Their interference in the affairs of the vassals in Italy was very insignificant. Here the main support of the feudal vassals were the bishops of various Lombard cities.
Emperor Henry III, starting in 1046, received the right to appoint popes of his own choosing, just as he did with regard to bishops belonging to the German church. He used his power to introduce the ideas of church government in Rome in accordance with the principles of the so-called canon law (Cluny Reform). These principles were developed in the territory located on the border between Germany and France. After the death of Henry, the papacy turned the idea of freedom of the Divine State against the imperial power. Gregory VII, the Pope, argued that spiritual power is superior to secular power. He began an attack on imperial law and began to appoint bishops on his own. This struggle went down in history as the “struggle for investiture.” It lasted from 1075 to 1122.
Hohenstaufen Dynasty
The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead, however, to final clarity on the pressing issue of supremacy, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, who was the first emperor belonging to the Hohenstaufen dynasty (who took the throne 30 years later), the struggle between the empire and the papal throne flared up again. Under Frederick, the term “Sacred” was added to the phrase “Roman Empire” for the first time. That is, the state began to be called the Holy Roman Empire. This concept received further justification when Roman law began to be revived, as well as contacts were established with the influential Byzantine state. This period was the time of the highest power and prestige of the empire.
Spread of Hohenstaufen power
Frederick, as well as his successors on the throne (other Holy Roman Emperors) centralized the system of government in the territories that belonged to the state. They also conquered Italian cities and also established suzerainty over countries outside the empire.
The Hohenstaufens, as Germany moved eastward, extended their influence in this direction. The Kingdom of Sicily went to them in 1194. This happened through Constance, who was the daughter of the Sicilian king Roger II and the wife of Henry VI. This led to the fact that the papal possessions were completely surrounded by lands that were the property of the state of the Holy Roman Empire.
The Empire is in decline
The civil war weakened its power. It flared up between the Hohenstaufens and the Welves after Henry died prematurely in 1197. The papal throne under Innocent III dominated until 1216. This pope even insisted on the right to resolve controversial issues arising between contenders for the throne of the emperor.
After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the former greatness to the imperial crown, but was forced to give the German princes the right to do whatever they wanted in their destinies. He, having thus abandoned his leadership in Germany, decided to concentrate all his forces on Italy, to strengthen his position here in the ongoing struggle with the papal throne, as well as with the cities under the control of the Guelphs.
The power of the emperors after 1250
In 1250, shortly after Frederick died, with the help of the French, the papacy finally defeated the Hohenstaufen dynasty. One can see the decline of the empire at least in the fact that the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were not crowned for quite a long time - in the period from 1250 to 1312. However, the state itself still existed in one form or another for a long period - more than five centuries. This was because it was closely associated with the German royal throne, and also because of the persistence of the tradition. The crown, despite numerous attempts made by the French kings to obtain the dignity of the emperor, remained unchanged in the hands of the Germans. Boniface VIII's attempts to reduce the status of the emperor's power caused the opposite result - a movement in its defense.
Decline of the Empire
But the glory of the state is already a thing of the past. Despite the efforts made by Petrarch and Dante, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from ideals that had become obsolete. And the glory of the empire was their embodiment. Now its sovereignty was limited only to Germany. Burgundy and Italy fell away from it. The state received a new name. It became known as the "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."
By the end of the 15th century, the last ties with the papal throne were severed. By this time, the kings of the Holy Roman Empire began to accept the title without going to Rome to receive the crown. The power of the princes in Germany itself increased. The principles of election to the throne had been sufficiently defined since 1263, and in 1356 they were consolidated by Charles IV. The seven electors (called electors) used their influence to make various demands on the emperors.
This greatly weakened their power. Below is the flag of the Roman Empire that existed since the 14th century.
Habsburg emperors
The crown had been in the hands of the Habsburgs (Austrians) since 1438. Following the trend that existed in Germany, they sacrificed the interests of the nation for the sake of the greatness of their dynasty. Charles I, King of Spain, was elected Roman Emperor in 1519 under the name of Charles V. He united the Netherlands, Spain, Germany, Sardinia and the Kingdom of Sicily under his rule. Charles, Holy Roman Emperor, abdicated the throne in 1556. The Spanish crown then passed to Philip II, his son. Ferdinand I, his brother, was appointed to succeed Charles as Holy Roman Emperor.
Collapse of the Empire
The princes throughout the 15th century tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the Reichstag (which represented the electors, as well as less influential princes and cities of the empire) at the expense of the emperor. The Reformation that occurred in the 16th century dashed any hopes that the old empire could be rebuilt. As a result, various secularized states were born, as well as strife based on religion.
The power of the emperor was now decorative. The meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats, busy with trifles. The empire degenerated into a tenuous alliance between many small independent states and principalities. In 1806, on August 6, Franz II renounced the crown. Thus the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation collapsed.
The content of the article
HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE(962–1806), founded in 962 by the German king Otto I, a feudal-theocratic state entity with a complex hierarchy. According to Otto, this would revive the empire created by Charlemagne in 800. The idea of pan-Roman Christian unity, which was present in the Roman Empire itself since its Christianization, i.e. from the era of Constantine the Great (d. 337), to the 7th century. was largely forgotten. However, the church, which was under the strong influence of Roman laws and institutions, did not forget about it. At one time St. Augustine undertook in his treatise About the city of God(De Civitate Dei) critical development of pagan ideas about a universal and eternal monarchy. Medieval thinkers interpreted the doctrine of the city of God in a political aspect, more positively than Augustine himself meant. They were encouraged to do this by the comments of the Church Fathers on Book of Daniel, according to which the Roman Empire is the last of the great empires, and it will perish only with the coming of the Antichrist. The Roman Empire became a symbol of the unity of Christian society.
The term “Holy Roman Empire” itself arose quite late. Charlemagne, immediately after his coronation in 800, used the long and awkward title (soon discarded) “Charles, Most Serene Augustus, God-crowned, Great and Peace-loving Emperor, Ruler of the Roman Empire.” Subsequently, emperors, from Charlemagne to Otto I, called themselves simply “Emperor Augustus” (imperator augustus), without any territorial specification (it was assumed that over time the entire former Roman Empire would enter the power, and ultimately the entire world). Otto II is sometimes called “Emperor Augustus of the Romans” (Romanorum imperator augustus), and starting from Otto III this is already an indispensable title. The phrase “Roman Empire” (lat. Imperium Romanum) as the name of the state began to be used from the middle of the 10th century, and was finally established in 1034 (we should not forget that the Byzantine emperors also considered themselves successors to the Roman Empire, so the assignment of this name by the Germans kings led to diplomatic complications). The “Holy Empire” (lat. Sacrum Imperium) is found in the documents of Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa starting in 1157. Since 1254, the full designation “Holy Roman Empire” (lat. Sacrum Romanum Imperium) has taken root in the sources, the same name in German (Heiliges Römisches Reich) is found in the German sources of Emperor Charles IV, and from 1442 the words “German Nation” (Deutscher Nation, Latin Nationis Germanicae) are added to it - initially to distinguish the German lands proper from the “Roman Empire” as a whole. The decree of Emperor Frederick III of 1486 on “universal peace” refers to the “Roman Empire of the German Nation,” and the resolution of the Cologne Reichstag of 1512 used the final form “Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation,” which lasted until 1806.
Carolingian emperors.
The medieval theory of the divine state originated from the earlier Carolingian period. The structure created in the second half of the 8th century. Pepin and his son Charlemagne's Frankish kingdom included most of Western Europe, making it suitable for the role of guardian of the interests of the Holy See, replacing the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire in this role. Having crowned Charlemagne with the imperial crown on December 25, 800, Pope Leo III severed ties with Constantinople and created a new Western Empire. Thus, the political interpretation of the Church as a continuation of the ancient Empire received a concrete form of expression. It was based on the idea that a single political ruler should rise over the world, acting in harmony with the universal Church, both of them having their own spheres of influence established by God. This holistic concept of the “divine state” was realized almost in full under Charlemagne, and although the empire disintegrated under his grandchildren, the tradition continued to be preserved in the minds, which led in 962 to the establishment by Otto I of that entity that later became known as the Holy Roman Empire .
The first German emperors.
Otto, as a German king, had power over the most powerful state in Europe, and therefore he was able to revive the empire, repeating what Charlemagne had already done. However, Otto's possessions were significantly smaller than those that belonged to Charlemagne: this included mainly the lands of Germany, as well as northern and central Italy; limited sovereignty extended to uncivilized border areas. The imperial title did not give the kings of Germany much additional powers, although theoretically they stood above all the royal houses of Europe. The emperors ruled in Germany using already existing administrative mechanisms, and interfered very little with the affairs of their feudal vassals in Italy, where their main support was the bishops of the Lombard cities. Beginning in 1046, Emperor Henry III received the right to appoint popes, just as he had control over the appointment of bishops in the German church. He used his power to introduce in Rome the ideas of church government in accordance with the principles of canon law (the so-called Cluny Reform), which were developed in the area that lay on the border between France and Germany. After Henry's death, the papacy turned the principle of the freedom of the "divine state" against the authority of the emperor in matters of church government. Pope Gregory VII asserted the principle of the superiority of spiritual over temporal power and, in what became known in history as the “Struggle for Investiture,” which lasted from 1075 to 1122, began an attack on the emperor’s right to appoint bishops.
Hohenstaufen on the imperial throne.
The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead to final clarity on the question of supremacy in the state and church, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, the first Hohenstaufen emperor, who took the throne 30 years later, the struggle between the papacy and the empire flared up again, although in concrete terms the reason for it was now disagreements about the ownership of Italian lands. Under Frederick, the word “Sacred” was added to the words “Roman Empire” for the first time, indicating a belief in the sanctity of the secular state; this concept was further substantiated during the revival of Roman law and the revival of contacts with the Byzantine Empire. This was the period of the highest prestige and power of the empire. Frederick and his successors centralized the system of government in the territories they owned, conquered Italian cities, established feudal suzerainty over states outside the empire, and, as the Germans advanced eastward, extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194, the Kingdom of Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufens - through Constance, the daughter of King Roger II of Sicily and the wife of Emperor Henry VI, which led to the complete encirclement of the papal possessions by the lands of the Holy Roman Empire.
Decline of the Empire.
The power of the empire was weakened by the civil war that broke out between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens after the premature death of Henry in 1197. Under Innocent III, the papal throne dominated Europe until 1216, even insisting on its right to resolve disputes between claimants to the imperial throne. After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the imperial crown to its former greatness, but was forced to leave the German princes to do whatever they wanted in their inheritance: having abandoned supremacy in Germany, he focused all his attention on Italy in order to strengthen his position in the struggle here with the papal throne and the cities under Guelph rule. Shortly after Frederick's death in 1250, the papacy, with the help of the French, finally defeated the Hohenstaufens. The decline of the empire can be seen at least in the fact that in the period from 1250 to 1312 there were no coronations of emperors. Nevertheless, the empire existed in one form or another for more than five centuries, thanks to its connection with the German royal throne and the vitality of the imperial tradition. Despite the constantly renewed attempts of the French kings to gain imperial dignity, the emperor's crown remained invariably in German hands, and the attempts of Pope Boniface VIII to downgrade the status of the imperial power gave rise to a movement in its defense. However, the glory of the empire remained largely in the past, and despite the efforts of Dante and Petrarch, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from the obsolete ideals of which it was the embodiment. The sovereignty of the empire was now limited to Germany alone, since Italy and Burgundy fell from it, and it received a new name - the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The last ties with the papal throne were interrupted towards the end of the 15th century, when German kings made it a rule to accept the title of emperor without going to Rome to receive the crown from the hands of the pope. In Germany itself, the power of the princes increased, which occurred at the expense of the rights of the emperor. Beginning in 1263, the principles of election to the German throne were sufficiently defined, and in 1356 they were enshrined in the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV. The seven electors used their influence to make demands on the emperors, which greatly weakened the central government.
Habsburg emperors.
Beginning in 1438, the imperial crown was in the hands of the Austrian Habsburgs, who, following the general trend characteristic of Germany, sacrificed national interests in the name of the greatness of the dynasty. In 1519, King Charles I of Spain was elected Holy Roman Emperor under the name Charles V, uniting Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Sicily and Sardinia under his rule. In 1556, Charles abdicated the throne, after which the Spanish crown passed to his son Philip II. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was his brother Ferdinand I. Throughout the 15th century. the princes tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the imperial Reichstag (which represented the electors, lesser princes and imperial cities) at the expense of the emperor. Occurred in the 16th century. The Reformation destroyed all hopes of rebuilding the old empire, since it brought into being secularized states and began religious strife. The power of the emperor became decorative, the meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats busy with trifles, and the empire degenerated into a loose union of many small principalities and independent states. On August 6, 1806, the last Holy Roman Emperor, Franz II, who had already become Emperor of Austria Franz I in 1804, renounced his crown and thereby put an end to the existence of the empire. By this time, Napoleon had already proclaimed himself the true successor of Charlemagne, and political changes in Germany deprived the empire of its last support.
| CAROLINGIAN EMPERORS AND EMPERORS OF THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 1 |
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| Reign Time 2 | Rulers | Inheritance 3 | Years of life |
| CAROLINGIAN EMPERORS | |||
| 800–814 | Charles I the Great | Son of Pepin the Short; king of the Franks from 768; crowned in 800 | OK. 742–814 |
| 814–840 | Louis I the Pious | Son of Charlemagne; crowned co-emperor in 813 | 778–840 |
| 840–855 | Lothair I | Son of Louis I; co-emperor since 817 | 795–855 |
| 855–875 | Louis II | Son of Lothair I, co-emperor from 850 | OK. 822–875 |
| 875–877 | Charles II the Bald | Son of Louis I; king of the West Francian Kingdom (840–877) | 823–877 |
| 881–887 | Charles III the Fat | Son of Louis II of Germany and his successor; crowned 881; became king of the West Franc Kingdom c. 884; deposed and killed | 839–888 |
| 887–899 | Arnulf of Carinthia | Illegitimate son of King Carloman of Bavaria and Italy, son of Louis II of Germany; elected King of the East Franks in 887; crowned in 896 | OK. 850–899 |
| 900–911 | Louis the Child* | Son of Arnulf; elected king of Germany in 900 | 893–911 |
| FRANCONIAN HOUSE | |||
| 911–918 | Conrad I* | Son of Conrad, Count of Langau; Duke of Franconia, elected King of Germany | ? –918 |
| SAXON DYNASTY | |||
| 919–936 | Henry I the Birdcatcher* | Son of Otto the Most Serene, Duke of Saxony, elected King of Germany | OK. 876–936 |
| 936–973 | Otto I the Great | Son of Henry I; crowned in 962 | 912–973 |
| 973–983 | Otto II | Son of Otto I | 955–983 |
| 983–1002 | Otto III | Son of Otto II, crowned 996 | 980–1002 |
| 1002–1024 | Henry II Saint | Great-grandson of Henry I; crowned in 1014 | 973–1024 |
| FRANCONIAN DYNASTY | |||
| 1024–1039 | Conrad II | Son of Henry, Count of Speyer; descendant of Otto the Great; crowned in 1027 | OK. 990–1039 |
| 1039–1056 | Henry III the Black | Son of Conrad II; crowned in 1046 | 1017–1056 |
| 1056–1106 | Henry IV | Son of Henry III; under the tutelage of regents until 1066; crowned in 1084 | 1050–1106 |
| 1106–1125 | Henry V | Son of Henry IV; crowned in 1111 | 1086–1125 |
| SAXON DYNASTY | |||
| 1125–1137 | Lothair II (III) | Saxon or Suplinburg; crowned in 1133 | 1075–1137 |
| HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTY | |||
| 1138–1152 | Conrad III* | Duke of Franconia, grandson of Henry IV | 1093–1152 |
| 1152–1190 | Frederick I Barbarossa | Nephew of Conrad III; crowned 1155 | OK. 1122–1190 |
| 1190–1197 | Henry VI | Son of Frederick Barbarossa; crowned in 1191 | 1165–1197 |
| 1198–1215 | Otto IV | Son of Henry the Lion; fought against Philip of Swabia, also elected king of Germany; crowned in 1209 | c.1169/c.1175–1218 |
| 1215–1250 | Frederick II | Son of Henry VI; crowned 1220 | 1194–1250 |
| 1250–1254 | Conrad IV* | Son of Frederick II | 1228–1254 |
| 1254–1273 | Interregnum | Richard of Cornwall and Alphonse X of Castile are elected German kings; not crowned | |
| HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1273–1291 | Rudolf I* | Son of Albrecht IV, Count of Habsburg | 1218–1291 |
| NASSAU DYNASTY | |||
| 1292–1298 | Adolf* | Son of Walram II of Nassau; elected king of Germany, deposed and killed in battle | OK. 1255–1298 |
| HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1298–1308 | Albrecht I* | Eldest son of Rudolf I of Habsburg; killed by nephew | 1255–1308 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1308–1313 | Henry VII | Son of Henry III, Count of Luxembourg; crowned in 1312 | 1274/75–1313 |
| 1314–1347 | Louis IV of Bavaria | Son of Louis II, Duke of Bavaria; elected together with Frederick the Handsome, whom he defeated and captured; crowned 1328 | 1281/82–1347 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1347–1378 | Charles IV | Son of John (Jan), King of the Czech Republic; crowned 1355 | 1316–1378 |
| 1378–1400 | Wenceslaus (Vaclav) | Son of Charles IV; King of the Czech Republic; displaced | 1361–1419 |
| Palatinate DYNASTY | |||
| 1400–1410 | Ruprecht* | Elector of the Palatinate | 1352–1410 |
| LUXEMBOURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1410–1411 | Yost* | Nephew of Charles IV; Margrave of Moravia and Brandenburg, elected together with Sigismund | 1351–1411 |
| 1410–1437 | Sigismund I | Son of Charles IV; King of Hungary and the Czech Republic; elected for the first time together with Yost, and after his death - again; crowned in 1433 | 1368–1437 |
| HABSBURG DYNASTY | |||
| 1438–1439 | Albrecht II* | Sigismund's son-in-law | 1397–1439 |
| 1440–1493 | Frederick III | Son of Ernest the Iron, Duke of Austria; crowned in 1452 | 1415–1493 |
| 1493–1519 | Maximilian I | Son of Frederick III | 1459–1519 |
| 1519–1556 | Charles V | Grandson of Maximilian I; king of Spain as Charles I (1516–1556); abdicated the throne | 1500–1558 |
| 1556–1564 | Ferdinand I | Brother of Charles V | 1503–1564 |
| 1564–1576 | Maximilian II | Son of Ferdinand I | 1527–1576 |
| 1576–1612 | Rudolf II | Son of Maximilian II | 1552–1612 |
| 1612–1619 | Matvey | Brother of Rudolf II | 1557–1619 |
| 1619–1637 | Ferdinand II | Son of Charles, Duke of Styria | 1578–1637 |
| 1637–1657 | Ferdinand III | Son of Ferdinand II | 1608–1657 |
| 1658–1705 | Leopold I | Son of Ferdinand III | 1640–1705 |
| 1705–1711 | Joseph I | Son of Leopold I | 1678–1711 |
| 1711–1740 | Charles VI | Brother of Joseph I | 1685–1740 |
| WITTELSBACH DYNASTY (BAVARIAN HOUSE) | |||
| 1742–1745 | Charles VII | Elector of Bavaria; became emperor as a result of the War of the Austrian Succession | 1697–1745 |
| HABSBURG–LORAINE DYNASTY | |||
| 1745–1765 | Francis I Stephen | Son of Leopold, Duke of Lorraine; ruled jointly with his wife Maria Theresa (1717–1780) 1740–1765 | 1708–1765 |
| 1765–1790 | Joseph II | Son of Franz I and Maria Theresa; ruled jointly with his mother from 1765 to 1780 | 1741–1790 |
| 1790–1792 | Leopold II | Son of Franz I and Maria Theresa | 1747–1792 |
| 1792–1806 | Franz II | Son of Leopold II, last Holy Roman Emperor; first took the title of Emperor of Austria (as Franz I) | 1768–1835 |
| * Was proclaimed Holy Roman Emperor, but was never crowned. 1 What would become known as the "Holy Roman Empire" began with the coronation of Otto I in Rome in 962. 2 Dates of actual stay on the throne. Beginning with Henry II, German kings also received the title of King of Rome upon their accession to the throne. This gave them the authority to exercise imperial prerogatives, although usually their coronation as emperors took place several years after their election by the German king. In 1452 it took place last coronation emperor (Frederick III) in Rome, and in 1530 - the last coronation (Charles V in Bologna) of the emperor by the pope. From then on, the title of emperor was acquired by German kings without being coronated by the pope. 3 The year of coronation is the coronation of the pope as emperor. |
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“Founded in the middle of the 10th century, the empire developed over eight and a half centuries, and ceased to exist in 1806. In form of government, it was a feudal-theocratic interstate entity, which was controlled by an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. At its origins stood Otto the First, who tried in every possible way to realize the idea of Charlemagne and Constantine the Great about Christian unity and equality. The guardian of this concept for many centuries was the church, which played an important role in the development of the Holy Roman Empire. The doctrines of the state were laid down in the work of St. Augustine, who believed that such an empire would ensure the unity of Christians throughout the world."
State name
It was first introduced by Charlemagne, who for some time enjoyed the title of Emperor of the Roman Empire. After him, the rulers preferred to be called simply emperors Augusti, without territorial specification. Rome, i.e. the whole world was automatically implied in this entire title, the power of which was gradually to cover vast areas. Only from the middle of the 10th century. the state began to be called The Roman Empire, which meant the country of the Germans. By the 30s. XI century this name was officially assigned to the empire. Because of this, a contradiction arose with Constantinople, because he considered himself the successor of Rome. As a result, diplomatic problems and contradictions constantly arose between Germany and Byzantium. In written sources the name appeared only from the middle of the 12th century, when he was in power Frederick the First Barbarossa. Under him, the state was officially called Holy Empire, and the word Roman added only a hundred years later, in the middle of the 13th century. Another two hundred years later, the phrase German nation was added, which emphasized the territorial isolation and greatness of Germany. This is precisely the formulation that was typical for the country before early XIX V.
Composition of the empire
The center of the state was the territory of modern Germany, around which other lands united. In particular, the empire constantly included central part Italy, all of the Netherlands and the Czech Republic. Sometimes small French regions were included. Because of this it was believed that Holy Roman Empire is the unification of three kingdoms. These were Italian, German and Burgundian, although the Czech Republic also claimed this full status. Under the Ottones and their descendants, vast territories were conquered in Central, Eastern, Southern and Western Europe. In particular, lands inhabited by tribes of Lusatian Serbs, Bavarians, Lorraineers, Franconians and others were annexed.
The state structure of the empire in the XX-XIX centuries.
The creator is considered Otto the First, who sought to recreate two countries - ancient Rome and the Frankish state of Charlemagne. This determined the internal structure of the state, which throughout its existence was decentralized, although the imperial power was supreme. The hierarchical structure looked like this:
The state was headed by an emperor who did not have a hereditary title. Only the college of electors, which chose the emperor, could appropriate it. His power was limited to representatives of aristocratic circles, but only in Germany. Later, this function was performed by the Reichstag, which included the main families of the empire;
Territorial princes had local power;
Imperial Knights;
City Magistrate;
Aristocracy;
Clergy;
Peasants.
City dwellers.
The state has undergone an evolution from a feudal and theocratic formation to independent subjects of the federation. The crisis of centralization of power occurred when it was captured Italy. This happened in the XV-XVI centuries. and local princes got a chance to strengthen their positions. This is how the first trends towards decentralization appeared, when the lands of the empire received the status of autonomous or independent. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. The ruling dynasty organized a reform aimed at strengthening the central apparatus of power and weakening aristocratic rule. The idea was a success, because... a new balance of power emerged - strong imperial power and weaker classes.
The situation changed with the beginning Reformation, which contributed to the fact that in the 17th century. The German Reichstag became a representative body. It included almost all classes of the empire, which subsequently ensured the expansion of the rights of imperial state entities, the rights and privileges of all classes. This also applied to various faiths, when Catholics and Protestants were actually equal in rights. Reformation provided many Protestant principalities with significant independence and rights. They got a chance for internal consolidation and the gradual development of their own statehood. In the 18th century the powers of the central government were significantly reduced, which subsequently ended in the collapse of the state. The catalyst for this was wars Napoleon Bonaparte, whose attacks forced the German states to form an alliance called the Rhineland.
Thus, from the middle of the 10th century. until the beginning of the 19th century. the empire was a kind of hybrid of a federation and a confederation. During this time the country was feudal, and these trends lasted for almost nine centuries. The country was divided into the following entities:
Electorates and duchies that were autonomous, semi-independent or independent;
Principalities and counties;
Cities that have Magdenburg Law;
Abbeys;
Imperial possessions of the knights.
They were headed by princes - either clergy or secular persons, who were obligatorily subordinate to the imperial authority. Each city, land, and duchy was ruled by princes, magistrates, and knights, which allows us to talk about a two-tier system of leadership. Firstly, these were imperial entities. Secondly, territorial. Civil strife constantly broke out between them, most often over supreme power. Most often, Bavaria, Prussia and Austria “sinned” with this. The church had separate rights, which is why the empire was considered theocratic. This allowed representatives of different faiths to exist peacefully. Empire since the 10th century to the 19th century was constantly characterized by contradictory development, because Two key trends competed with each other - separation and full integration. Large principalities, which had broad powers and a certain autonomy in foreign and domestic policy, sought to decentralize. The princes were quite independent from the emperor, so they independently chose the vectors of their development.
The unifying factors were:
The presence of class authorities - the Reichstag, the court and the zemstvo world system;
Church;
Mentality and self-awareness;
The class structure of society, which influenced the state structure;
The exaltation of the emperor, as a result of which patriotism appeared.
Ottonian Dynasty
From the second half of the 10th century. to the beginning of the 11th century. The dynasty of the founders of the empire was in power. They laid down the tradition of electing clergy, who were appointed and approved by the emperor. All priests, abbots and bishops were required to swear an oath to the ruler, which integrated the church into the state. At the same time, it was both a pillar of power and a symbol of unity. This was especially evident during the anti-feudal uprisings that broke out from time to time in various parts of the empire. The Ottonians had the right to appoint and remove popes, which resulted in a merger of spiritual and temporal power. This was most evident during the reign of the two emperors Conrad the Second and Henry the Third(XI century).
The Ottonians were able to form a strong apparatus of central power, while other institutions were poorly developed. The emperor was the sole ruler of three kingdoms, the ownership of which was inherited. The state was formed on the basis of duchies created on the basis of tribes. Among the external rivals the following stood out:
Slavs, especially Western ones. They settled on the river. Elba, having mastered the northern regions of the empire. This trend continued into the 21st century, since the Lusatian Serbs are one of the ethnic groups in the north of modern Germany. They stopped the influence of the Poles and Hungarians, who were able to defend their independence from the influence of the German tribes;
Creation of a large number of stamps in Italy, France and other kingdoms of Western Europe;
Fight against Arab invaders and Byzantines;
In Italy, imperial power was strengthened only sporadically, but complete subjugation did not occur. The capture of Rome was a symbol of the empire, for which it was necessary to justify the tradition of succession. Under Otto the Third, the Italian capital was briefly turned into the center of the empire, but then returned back to Germany.
Salic dynasty
From the 11th century Representatives of another family came to power, the first of which was Conrad the Second. Under him, a class of knights arose who owned small lands. Their rights were enshrined in law, which became the basis for the formation of the feudal system and law. They were relied upon by rulers who sought support among knights and landowners, especially in matters of integration. Under Conrad the Second and Henry the Third appanage princes were appointed personally by the emperor, which led to conflicts with wealthy aristocrats and landowners. To avoid constant clashes and eliminate manifestations of discontent, wars, conflicts, and struggles were prohibited in the state.
Henry the Fourth, as a child, he was constantly faced with the fact that the emperor’s power was falling. The situation was aggravated by the fact that radical reforms began in the church. One of them was associated with Gregory the Seventh, who started a struggle between the emperor and Vatican. He sought to gain complete independence from Germany, to prove that the power of the Pope was higher than secular. In history this confrontation is known as investiture, which was characterized by a long struggle between Gregory the Seventh and Henry the Fourth. The confrontation finally ended after the death of the latter, when it was signed Concordat of Worms. According to its terms, episcopal positions were elected freely, without interference from the emperor. It was possible to preserve the distribution of possessions, and, accordingly, to appoint clergy. The result of the confrontation Salic dynasty And Vatican there was a significant strengthening of regional princes and knights who received allotments for their service.
Supplinburg Dynasty
Historically, the Supplinburgs were in opposition to both the Salic dynasty and the Hohenstaufens. After Henry V of the Salic dynasty left no heirs in 1125, the civil war of succession between the Supplinburgs and the Hohenstaufens was won by Lothair II. But the history of the reign of the Supplinburg dynasty turned out to be fleeting, because. Lothair II had only one daughter and ended in 1137 with the death of Lothair II.
Hohenstaufen rule
The reign of representatives of this dynasty was determined by the confrontation with another family - the Welves. Both families aspired to rule the empire. The Staufens' patrimonial estates were Swabia, Franconia and Alsace, which united into the southwestern region. The most famous representatives of the dynasty were Conrad the Third and Friedrich First Barbarossa, under which central power was significantly strengthened. The reign of the latter was the pinnacle of the power of the state, which more than one emperor could not repeat afterwards. In addition to unifying the country, Frederick fought to restore German dominance in Italy. In Rome, he achieved a coronation, after which he made an attempt to legally formalize rule in the Apennines and Germany. But Italian cities, Pope Alexander III, and the Sicilian king opposed it. They created the so-called Lombard League, which defeated Frederick's troops. The results of the Italian company were:
German recognition of the autonomy of the northern cities of the Kingdom of Italy;
The division of the possessions of Frederick's opponents - the Welf dynasty, from whose lands the domain of the ruling family was created;
The Emperor strengthened his influence in the German lands;
The population supported the Third Crusade, which Barbarossa launched and during which he died.
His son became the next emperor Henry the Sixth, who was engaged in active foreign and domestic policy. Under him, territories such as Sicily and the southern part of the Apennines were included in the state. He also significantly strengthened the institution of the monarchy, making it hereditary. The bureaucratic system was strengthened, covering the entire country, which consolidated autocracy in the German lands. But here the emperor constantly ran into resistance from the princes in the regions, who started an internecine war. After the death of Henry the Sixth, the local aristocrats chose their own rulers, so the empire began to be ruled by two emperors at once: Frederick the Second from the Staufens and Otto the Fourth from the Welfs. The confrontation ended only in 1230, when Frederick II made significant concessions to the nobility:
In 1220 he initiated the signing of an agreement with the so-called princes of the church;
In 1232, a Decree appeared in favor of the aristocrats.
According to the documents, bishops and secular princes were recognized as sovereigns in their own dominions. This was the first step towards the creation of hereditary state entities that were semi-independent in nature and practically not subject to central authority. The Hohenstaufens ceased to exist by the middle of the 12th century, which is why the entire empire plunged into a period of endless unrest for twenty years. They ended in 1273, when the first representative from the family was elected to the throne Habsburgs. The emperor was no longer able to strengthen his power; the terms of his rule were dictated to him by princes and aristocrats. The interests of individual lands began to play a leading role, which had a negative impact on development Holy Roman Empire. Occupying the imperial throne was prestigious, but only after the family possessions had been significantly strengthened. To do this, they had to be expanded and received broad privileges and autonomy from the sovereign.
Empire in the XIV-XV centuries.
accession Habsburgs became a turning point for the country. They inherited Austria, Wittelsbach went to Holland, Brandenburg, Gennegau, and Luxembourg– vast territories in Central Europe, in particular the Czech Republic and Moravia.
Decentralized tendencies began to dominate in the internal life of the country.
Firstly, the dominance of the principle of election of the ruler. Various candidates could apply for the post of emperor, one of whom then became the ruler of the entire country. Some made attempts to transfer power by inheritance, but this was not successful.
Secondly, the role and importance of large feudal lords, princes and other representatives of the nobility increased. There were seven clans that could choose and remove the emperor. This right was given to them by hereditary possessions, on which they relied in making decisions. The strongest families were Habsburgs And Luxembourg. One of the emperors in the middle of the 14th century. managed to carry out a constitutional reform, according to which it was adopted Golden Bull. According to it, a college of electors was created, which included 3 archbishops, the Czech king, the Elector of the Palatinate, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Brandenburg. They had the right to elect the emperor; decide what the vectors of domestic and foreign policy will be; realize the right to internal sovereignty of local princes. As a result, feudal fragmentation was consolidated in the country and papal influence on the election of the emperor was eliminated.
Thirdly, the gradual disintegration of the Hohenstaufen domain.
Fourthly, an increase in the number of civil strife that destroyed the internal organization of the empire.
Due to these factors, the Roman state lost almost all its possessions in Italy, as well as French possessions in Burgundy. At the same time, German possessions received a chance to free themselves from the influence of the Pope. This process was accompanied by the withdrawal of imperial and regional possessions, which were previously subject to power Vatican.
Crisis phenomena engulfed the empire from the middle of the 14th century. and lasted until the very end of the 15th century. They manifested themselves in all areas of life:
Population decline due to the plague epidemic;
Strengthening the Hanseatic League of trading cities in the north of the country;
The creation of the Swabian and Rhine military alliances in the south of the empire to fight the emperor’s troops;
The aggravation of problems within the church, resulting in a split in the middle of the Catholic community. Heretical movements, including the Hussite belief, gradually began to penetrate into the country. Gradually, Protestant movements began to appear that actively competed with the Catholic Church;
Collapse of financial and monetary systems;
The formation of regional government apparatuses, because of which the principalities actually left the authority of the emperor. By their nature, these were representative bodies of power, called Landtags. This influenced the formation of the destinies’ own military, judicial and tax systems;
A failed foreign policy that led to protracted wars with the Czech Republic and Hungary.
From 1452, the Habsburgs finally gained a foothold on the throne, ruling the empire until 1806. They contributed to the formation of a representative body that included classes from all over the country. It was named the Reichstag, which soon acquired imperial significance.
The state in the 16th century: attempts at reform
At the end of the 15th century. on the territory of the country there were hundreds of state entities of the most various forms and methods of addiction. Each of them had its own financial and military systems, and the emperor could no longer influence the princes, because control mechanisms are significantly outdated. Smaller principalities and duchies were still more or less dependent on the central government, while larger ones were absolutely independent. Most often, they used this to expand their possessions, attacking neighboring properties and cities. In 1508 he was elected to the position of emperor Maximilian the First of Habsburg, who decided to hold the Reichstag in the city of Worms. The purpose of the event was to present to all those present a version of a reform aimed at changing the state system of government of the country. After a long discussion, the proposed document was adopted and the empire embarked on the path of reform.
At first Germany was divided into 6 districts, to which 4 were later added. They were governed by an assembly that included representatives of the secular and spiritual nobility (princes), knights from imperial cities, and the population of free settlements. The state entity had one vote in the assembly, which in some cases gave an advantage to the middle class. This was very important for the emperor, who sought his support.
The districts had to decide the following issues:
Engage in military construction;
Organize defense;
Recruit soldiers for the army;
Distribute and collect taxes for the imperial budget.
Was created separately Higher Imperial Court, which has become the most important judicial authority in the country. Through him, the emperor was able to influence the princes and somewhat centralize the state.
Maximilian Success was achieved only in the creation of the court and districts, but attempts to deepen the reform failed.
Firstly, the attempt to organize executive authorities ended in failure. Equally unsuccessful were attempts at a unified army.
Secondly, the estates did not support Maximilian’s foreign policy aspirations, which worsened the situation Holy Roman Empire on the international stage.
Because of this, the emperor is like an archduke Austria, continued his course towards separating his fiefdom. The Duchy no longer contributed taxes to the imperial institutions and did not take part in meetings of the Reichstag. Therefore, Austria found itself outside the empire, and its independence was increased to unlimited proportions. Thus, the emperor's policies were very useful for the duchy, but not for the empire. Transition Germany to the background further aggravated the situation in the state, intensifying the crisis. This was also facilitated by the fact that the emperor refused to be crowned Pope. The ancient tradition of legitimacy of power and rights was violated. From then on, Maximilian enjoyed the title of elected emperor, and his followers were considered rulers after being elected by the college. Attempts at reform continued Charles the Fifth, who was the last emperor crowned by Rome.
His reign had the following characteristic features:
The Reichstag was convened quite rarely, which made it possible to implement various events of Charles;
The support of electors, princes, knights and citizens, creating a new balance of power;
It was forbidden to resolve issues between state entities in the empire using military methods;
A common financial system was created, to which all representatives of the classes made contributions. Sometimes the electors refused to do this so as not to pay for Charles’s expenses on foreign policy campaigns. Most often, they were directed against the Ottoman Empire;
Creation of a unified criminal code.
Thanks to the efforts Maximilian the First And Charles the Fifth an organized legal and government system, which was important for competing with other nation-states. As a result, the unity and stability of Germany was maintained for a long time, in which old and new political institutions operated in parallel. This hybrid model somewhat hampered the development of the empire, without creating new attributes of power. The dominant position continued to be occupied Habsburgs, which expanded family holdings, created a solid economic base, consolidated the imperial political influence behind the dynasty. They allowed the capital of the country to be moved to Vienna, which shifted the center of political gravity.
Habsburg Empire in the XVII-XVIII centuries.
Foreign policy Holy Roman Empire for several centuries did not bring serious results, so the state lost its leading position in Europe. Despite this, the emperors pursued traditional directions in European politics:
Spain was supported;
An anti-French alliance was created with Holland and England. Germany managed to win the War of Spanish Succession, compensating for losses in Thirty Years' War;
The empire included several Italian possessions, as well as the southern part of the Netherlands;
The creation of an alliance of Austria, Hanover, Poland and the Duchy of Brandenburg against Sweden, which ended in victory for Germany. She received access to the Baltic coast, and the former possessions of Sweden were divided between the German principalities;
The Empire organized a new “crusade” against the Ottomans. Large-scale campaigns were carried out, as a result of which the northern part of the Balkans, Central Europe, and the Transylvanian principalities were liberated.
Military successes contributed to the rapid revival of patriotism among the population, and the exaltation of the status of the emperor, who was now considered a symbol of the unity of the country.
Successes in military companies, returned loyalty western regions, where centers of support for the crown arose - Mainz, Westphalia, Middle Rhine, Swabia, Palatinate and others. In the south, this center was Bavaria, in the north – Saxony and Hanover.
In the early 1660s. The Reichstag began to be constantly convened again, which made it possible to adopt quite a lot of effective and efficient laws. The emperor was constantly present at the meetings, which allowed him to restore his influence and unite the classes. Integration gradually spread to the regional principalities, where the state apparatus, courts, and troops were created. The army has become an important tool in unifying the state, because participated in campaigns against France and Turkey. The districts took an active part in this, recruiting soldiers, collecting taxes, and forming military bases and contingents throughout the country.
Under such conditions, absolutist tendencies gradually began to emerge, which Leopold the First began to revive. This direction was continued by Joseph the First, who transferred the affairs of the empire to the chancellery in Vienna. The Erzchancellor and his subordinates were practically removed from the executive branch. Individual power was also manifested in foreign policy. Claims began to spread to northern Italy, where Germany started a new conflict. The imperial course was not supported by a number of electors, among which were Prussia, Saxony, Hanover and Bavaria. The central government constantly interfered in their internal affairs, which caused a negative reaction from the principalities. They practically became independent, carrying out their foreign policy in Sweden, Spain, Italy.
Rise of Prussia
The most acute confrontation arose between Prussia and Austria, which were the most influential entities in the empire. Habsburgs captured Hungary, Italy and the Netherlands, which isolated them from other regions. Due to constant interference in the affairs of other states, internal problems began to worsen and deepen. Their solution was not given due attention, so any attempts to centralize the empire were failed and unsuccessful. Outside the influence of the Habsburgs was Prussia, whose rulers have been pursuing an independent policy in Europe for several centuries. The princes took similar positions among the imperial electors, who were subdued with the help of a strong Prussian army. Thus, rivalry with Austria intensified, and Prussia withdrew from imperial affairs. It had its own legislation, its own norms and rules of conduct for rulers. Due to the absence of Prussian representatives in the Reichstag and the Imperial Court, their work was completely blocked. The systemic crisis that began was intensified by the death of a direct male descendant Habsburgs. After this, the confrontation became an open military struggle. She was distinguished by her participation in the division of the heritage of other principalities, “throne leapfrog”, and attempts to streamline the work of government bodies. At the end of the 1770s. Prussia, which entered into an alliance with Bavaria, opposed the emperor and his entourage. This became the final evidence of the collapse of the Habsburg government, which did not meet the trends of the times and the situation in Europe. Prussia successfully took advantage of the situation, defending the empire and preserving the rights of all entities of the empire.
Decay Holy Roman Empire came gradually under the influence of internal and external factors. The catalyst for all processes was that in 1803 Emperor Franz II accepted the title of ruler of Austria, equating himself with Napoleon Bonaparte. This was not a violation of the state constitution, but the Habsburgs lost the throne. Napoleon immediately began to claim it, having visited the tomb of Charlemagne and the capital of his empire - the city of Aachen.
The final nail in the collapse of the empire was driven by the country's participation in the coalition of states against France. The capital was captured, and on the side Bonaparte Several German principalities spoke out. Austria became the usual periphery of the empire, which quickly became a formality. At the beginning of August 1806, Franz II announced that he was no longer ruler Holy Roman Empire. This was justified by the appearance Confederation of the Rhine and the need to provide principalities, estates, and institutions with broader powers. Thus, the state of a single German nation ceased to exist.
Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae (lat.),
Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation (German)
The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation is a remarkable political institution that has retained the same form and the same claims for ten centuries (800 - 1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the 9th to the 19th centuries and Italy in the Middle Ages. By its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; its form was given by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the comprehensive and abstract nature of the empire, as the center and head of the Western Christian world. The beginning of the Holy Roman Empire dates back to 800, when he was crowned Roman Emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, the legal heir of the Roman Empire was Byzantium, the empire renewed by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797, and not by a successor. The event of 800 was the result of an agreement between the pope, ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries and the king. Charles actually owned the empire; he ruled in Rome, the capital of the empire (matrona imperii), and was the protector of the church. But the Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible; The coronation of Charles, without proclaiming the separation of the West from the East, declared Rome the capital of both political and ecclesiastical. Charles's power was sanctified by the coronation, but not increased. The imperial title changed Charles' position and surrounded him with special splendor; Since then, all of Karl’s activities have revolved around theocratic ideas.
The secondary restoration of the empire was carried out by Otto the Great. Despite the previous turmoil, Rome seemed to be the “golden city” (aurea Roma), its fate the fate of the whole world. “As long as the Colosseum is intact, Rome will live; when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall” - this was the idea of contemporaries about the greatness of the ancient empire. On February 2, 962, Otto aroused general enthusiasm by being crowned “Emperor Augustus.” In the mind of a medieval man, to whom antiquity bequeathed the idea of a world monarchy, there was a deep conviction in the necessary connection between the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the imperial power with the papal power. He is imperator terrenus, that is, God's deputy on earth in secular affairs, and “patronus,” that is, protector of the church; his power in everything corresponds to the power of the pope, the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between soul and body. “Just as in heaven,” said Emperor Frederick I, “there is only one God, so on earth there is only one pope and one emperor.” The coronation ceremony and official titles of the emperor indicate a desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians. He is the “head of Christendom,” the “secular head of the faithful,” the “patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith,” superior in dignity to all kings. Before their coronation in Rome, emperors from the 11th to the 16th centuries. bore the title "Romanorum rex semper Augustus", and after the coronation - "Romanorum Imperator semper Augustus". In 962, the beginning was made of combining two titles in one person - the Roman Emperor and the German King. At first this connection was purely personal, then it became official and real. Empire of the 10th century was, however, essentially a feudal monarchy. Having internalized the idea of one's power from ancient world, the emperors thought to implement it in a feudal way; imperial power gradually became feudalized.
In Rome, Otto was only an emperor, not a king; he was in charge of the apostolic see (the deposition of John XII), led the debates of the synod, looked at the pope as his creature, but could not firmly establish himself in the capital, in fact he had no power here, like his successors. Byzantium did not recognize the rude “Frank” as emperor. In France, the claims of the emperors were also not recognized. As part of the empire X - XI centuries. included Germany proper, most (2/3) of Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Denmark, and partly Hungary. The successors of Otto I, pursuing chimerical goals, met resistance in everything from the papacy, feudalism and national isolation. Otto III (983 - 1002) was completely immersed in the idea of a worldwide Roman Empire, turned away from his fellow tribesmen, considered himself a Roman, and dreamed of establishing Rome at the head of Germany, Lombardy and Greece. The empire reached significant strength under Henry III (1039 - 1056) of Franconia, who took advantage of the moment when papal power had not yet become stronger. He was the complete master of Italy, freely controlled the fate of the papal throne, but caused a terrible reaction that destroyed his successor. The struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and heaviest blow to the empire, significantly reducing its charm and instilling in Italy, together with the German princes, confidence in their forces. The Concordat of Worms of 1122 left the battlefield to the pope. After the death of Henry V (1124), the jurisdiction of the crown became significantly smaller: the independence of princes and barons was recognized.
Brilliant representatives of the idea of imperial power were in the second half of the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries. Hohenstaufens. Among them, the first place belongs to Frederick I (1152 - 1189), in whose person the imperial power opposed the pope with theoretical arguments. Frederick considered his power to depend directly on God and as sacred as the papal power. Bolognese jurists argued that the right to establish laws belongs to the emperor, whose will is the law, for it is written: “quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem, quum populus ei et in eum omne suum imperi um et polestatem concesserit.” However, Frederick I was the true ruler only in Germany. The empire at that time included the north. part of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy, i.e. Provence, Dauphine, Franche-Comté, Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace and part of Flanders. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire. Byzantium, as before, harbored enmity towards the emperors, considering them usurpers and barbarians, insultingly distorting the titles of emperors: thus, Isaac the Angel called Frederick I “the chief prince of Alemannia.”
Emperors were crowned with four crowns: the crown in Aachen made the monarch “king of the Franks”, and from the time of Henry II - “king of the Romans”, the coronation in Milan - the king of Italy, in Rome he received the double crown “lirbis et orbis”, and Frederick I, under the end of his life, he also accepted the fourth crown - the Burgundian crown (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatcase). When crowned in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, since these titles were lost in comparison with the title of emperor. The imperial title was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was transferred. Frederick I added the epithet “Sacred” to the name “Roman Empire,” which did not add anything new to the actual power of the emperor, but indicated its divine origin. Together with the Hohenstaufens, the idea of imperial power went to the grave. In Germany, imperial power collapsed due to the establishment of the territorial independence of the princes (the era of the great interregnum).
A new period in the history of the Northern Empire begins with the time of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). By the 14th century The Holy Empire is, in essence, the German Empire. The power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany, and even then only theoretically, since in reality it passed into the hands of the feudal lords. Emperors of the 14th century they are not embarrassed by anything in pursuing their dynastic interests and multiplying their family possessions. From the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire, only one name remained: the princes plundered all the lands and divided among themselves the attributes of imperial power, leaving the emperor with honorary rights and considering him their feudal master. The emperors of this era mortgage crowns, cities, live at the expense of others, endure every humiliation before the pope, but continue to call themselves heirs of the Caesars, heads of Christianity and rulers of the world, sacrificing everything for form and appearance.
Charles IV promises the pope not to stay in Rome for more than one day and receives the crown from the pope as a gift. Sigismund (1410 - 1437) loved to live at the expense of imperial cities and willingly visited places where he was treated. Imperial power reached a particular humiliation under Frederick III (1440 - 1493), who insisted on A. E. I. O. U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universo) - and fed on monasteries and imperial cities. His role in relation to Dad made him pathetic in everyone's eyes. After Frederick III, no emperor was crowned in Rome.
During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland overthrew the yoke of Germany, the Hungarians brutally devastated the eastern border of the empire. After Henry VII (1308 - 13) the power of the emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 Dauphiné passed to France, and in 1486 Provence. Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire (treaty of 1499). Added to this was the internal weakness of the empire, as an aggregate of constantly warring small states. The Habsburg dynasty seeks to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy. During the reign of Charles V (1519 - 1555), imperial power increased significantly, but an attempt to return it to its former significance met with opposition from both German princes and other states. The Reformation destroyed the theory on which the empire was based.
The last period of the existence of the Holy Empire is the saddest (1648 - 1806). The Peace of Westphalia deprived the emperor of any possibility of direct intervention in the administration. The Holy Empire becomes exclusively the German Empire, a fragile confederation, the existence of which gradually loses all meaning. The "hereditary enemy of the Holy Empire" was Louis XIV. In the 18th century the existence of the empire was almost forgotten: only high-profile titles remained. The whole spirit of the 18th century. contradicted the idea of the Holy Empire. The revolution, having destroyed feudalism, shook the old medieval building to its foundations. The Rastatt Congress (1797 - 98) fully revealed the internal disintegration of the Holy Empire, which had always suffered from a lack of national unity and political freedom. The last Emperor of the Holy Empire was Franz II (1792 - 1806). At this time, the destinies of Europe were controlled by Napoleon, who considered himself the true successor of Charlemagne and was carried away by the idea of a “world monarchy”; in March 1805 he was crowned in Milan with an iron crown. After the Peace of Presburg (December 26, 1805), Franz II renounced the rank of emperor: as early as 1804, he began to call himself “hereditary emperor of Austria.” This was the end of the Holy Roman Empire.
Under the Saxon and Franconian emperors, the imperial throne was elective. Every Christian (i.e. Catholic) could be an emperor, although usually a member of one of the powerful princely families in Germany was chosen as emperor. So reigned, after Conrad of Franconia, the Saxon dynasty (919 - 1024), the Franconian (1024 - 1125), after Lothair of Supplemburg (1125 - 1138) - the Hohenstaufens (1138 - 1250), the Habsburgs (1273 - 1291 and 1298 - 1308), the Luxembourg house (1308 - 1313 and 1346 - 1437), from 1438 - again Habsburgs. The electors elected the emperor. Their independence was legitimized by the golden bull. This order lasted until the 30-year war.
Emperors
|
Carolingians |
|
|
Liudolfings |
|
| 962-973 | |
| 973-983 | |
| 996-1002 | |
| 1014-1024 | |
|
Franconian dynasty |
|
| 1027-1039 | |
| 1046-1056 | |
| 1084-1105 | |
| 1111-1125 | |
| (from Saxon House) | 1133-1137 |
|
Hohenstaufen |
|
| 1155-1190 | |
| 1191-1197 | |
| (from the Welf house) | 1209-1215 |
| 1220-1250 | |
| 1303-1308 | |
|
Luxembourg |
|
| 1312-1313 | |
| (Wittelsbach) | 1328-1347 |
| 1355-1378 | |
| 1410-1437 | |
|
Habsburgs | |
| Vocabulary: Sugar - Seven Wise Men. Source: vol. XXIX (1900): Sugar - The Seven Wise Men, p. 278-281 () Other sources: MESBE |
Holy Roman Empire German nation(Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae) is a remarkable political institution that retained the same form and the same claims for ten centuries (800-1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the 9th to the 19th centuries. and Italy in the Middle Ages. By its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; its form was given by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the comprehensive and abstract nature of the empire, as the center and head of the Western Christian world. The beginning of the Holy Roman Empire dates back to 800, when Charlemagne was crowned Roman Emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, the legal heir of the Roman Empire was Byzantium, the empire restored by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after Constantine VI, deposed in 797, and not the successor of Romulus Augustulus. The event of 800 was the result of an agreement between the pope, ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries and the king. Charles actually owned the empire; he ruled in Rome, the capital of the empire (matrona imperii), and was the protector of the church. But the Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible; The coronation of Charles, without proclaiming the separation of the West from the East, declared Rome the capital of both political and ecclesiastical. Charles's power was consecrated coronation, but not increased. The imperial title changed Charles' position and surrounded him with special splendor; Since then, all of Karl’s activities have revolved around theocratic ideas. The secondary restoration of the empire was carried out by Otto the Great. Despite the previous turmoil, Rome seemed to be the “golden city” (aurea Roma), its fate the fate of the whole world. “As long as the Colosseum is intact, Rome will live; when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall,” this was the idea of contemporaries about the greatness of the ancient empire. On February 2, 962, Otto aroused general enthusiasm with his coronation as “Emperor Augustus.” In the mind of a medieval man, to whom antiquity bequeathed the idea of a world monarchy, there was a deep conviction in the necessary connection between the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the imperial power with the papal power. He is imperator terrenus, that is, God's deputy on earth in secular affairs, and “patronus,” that is, protector of the church; his power in everything corresponds to the power of the pope, the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between soul and body. “Like in heaven,” said the emperor. Frederick I, “there is only one God, and on earth there is only one pope and one emperor.” The coronation ceremony and official titles of the emperor indicate a desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians. He is the “head of Christendom,” the “secular head of the faithful,” the “patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith,” superior in dignity to all kings. Before their coronation in Rome, emperors from the 11th to the 16th centuries. bore the title “Romanorum goch semper Augustus”, and after the coronation - “Romanorum Imperator semper Augustus”. In 962, the beginning was made of combining two titles in one person - the Roman Emperor and the German King. At first this connection was purely personal, then it became official and real. Empire of the 10th century was, however, essentially a feudal monarchy. Having adopted the idea of their power from the ancient world, the emperors thought to implement it in a feudal way; imperial power gradually became feudalized. In Rome, Otto was only an emperor, not a king; he was in charge of the apostolic see (the deposition of John XII), led the debates of the synod, looked at the pope as his creature, but could not firmly establish himself in the capital, in fact he had no power here, like his successors. Byzantium did not recognize the rude “Frank” as emperor. In France, the claims of the emperors were also not recognized. As part of the empire X - XI centuries. included Germany proper, most (2/3) of Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Denmark, and partly Hungary. The successors of Otto I, pursuing chimerical goals, met resistance in everything from the papacy, feudalism and national isolation. Otto III (983-1002) was completely immersed in the idea of a worldwide Roman Empire, turned away from his fellow tribesmen, considered himself a Roman, and dreamed of establishing Rome at the head of Germany, Lombardy and Greece. The empire reached significant strength under Henry III (1039-1056) of Franconia, who took advantage of the moment when papal power had not yet become stronger. He was the complete master of Italy, freely controlled the fate of the papal throne, but caused a terrible reaction that destroyed his successor. The struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and heaviest blow to the empire, significantly reducing its charm and instilling in Italy, together with the German princes, confidence in their forces. The Concordat of Worms of 1122 left the battlefield to the pope. After the death of Henry V (1124), the jurisdiction of the crown became significantly smaller: the independence of princes and barons was recognized. Brilliant representatives of the idea of imperial power were in the second half of the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries. Hohenstaufens. Among them, the first place belongs to Frederick I (1152-1189), in whose person the imperial power opposed the pope with theoretical arguments. Frederick considered his power to depend directly on God and as sacred as the papal power. Bolognese jurists argued that the right to establish laws belongs to the emperor, whose will is the law, for it is written: “Quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem, quum populus ei et in eum omne suum imperium et polestatem concesserit.” However, Frederick I was the true ruler only in Germany. The empire at that time included the north. part of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy, i.e. Provence, Dauphine, Franche-Comté, West. Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace and part of Flanders. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire. Byzantium still harbored enmity towards the emperors, considering them usurpers and barbarians, insultingly perverting the titles of emperors: for example, Isaac Angel called Frederick I “the chief prince of Alemannia.” Emperors were crowned with four crowns: the crown in Aachen made the monarch “king of the Franks”, and from the time of Henry II - “king of the Romans”, the coronation in Milan - the king of Italy, in Rome he received the double crown “urbis et orbis”, and Frederick I, under the end of his life, he also accepted the fourth crown - the Burgundian crown (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatense). When crowned in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, since these titles were lost in comparison with the title of emperor. The imperial title was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was transferred. Frederick I added the epithet “Sacred” to the name “Roman Empire,” which did not add anything new to the actual power of the emperor, but indicated its divine origin. Together with the Hohenstaufens, the idea of imperial power went to the grave. In Germany, imperial power collapsed due to the establishment of the territorial independence of the princes (the era of the great interregnum). A new period in the history of the Northern Empire begins with the time of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). By the 14th century The S. Empire is, in essence, the German Empire. The power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany, and even then only theoretically, since in reality it passed into the hands of the feudal lords. Emperors of the 14th century they are not embarrassed by anything in pursuing their dynastic interests and multiplying their family possessions. From the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire, only one name remained: the princes plundered all the lands and divided among themselves the attributes of imperial power, leaving the emperor with honorary rights and considering him their feudal master. The emperors of this era mortgage crowns, cities, live at the expense of others, endure every humiliation before the pope, but continue to call themselves heirs of the Caesars, heads of Christianity and rulers of the world, sacrificing everything for form and appearance. Charles IV will promise the pope not to stay in Rome for more than one day and receives the crown from the pope as a gift. Sigismund (1410-1437) loved to live at the expense of the imperial cities and willingly visited where he was treated. Imperial power reached particular humiliation under Frederick III (1440-1493), who insisted on A. E. I. O. U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universo) - and fed on monasteries and imperial cities. His role in relation to Dad made him pathetic in everyone's eyes. After Frederick III, no emperor was crowned in Rome. - During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland overthrew the yoke of Germany, the Hungarians brutally devastated the eastern border of the empire. After Henry VII (1308-13) the power of the emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 Dauphiné passed to France, and in 1486 Provence. Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire (treaty of 1499). Added to this was the internal weakness of the empire, as an aggregate of constantly warring small states. The Habsburg dynasty seeks to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy. During the reign of Charles V (1519-1555), imperial power increased significantly, but an attempt to return it to its former significance met with opposition from both German princes and other states. The Reformation destroyed the theory on which the empire was based. The last period of the existence of the Northern Empire was the saddest (1648-1806). The Peace of Westphalia deprived the emperor of any possibility of direct intervention in the administration. The German Empire becomes exclusively the German Empire, a fragile confederation, the existence of which gradually loses all meaning. The “hereditary enemy of the Northern Empire” was Louis XIV. In the 18th century the existence of the empire was almost forgotten: only high-profile titles remained. The whole spirit of the 18th century. contradicted the idea of S. empire. The revolution, having destroyed feudalism, shook the old medieval building to its foundations. The Rastatt Congress (1797-98) fully revealed the internal disintegration of the Northern Empire, which had always suffered from a lack of national unity and political freedom. The last emperor of the Northern Empire was Franz II (1792-1806). At this time, the destinies of Europe were controlled by Napoleon, who considered himself the true successor of Charlemagne and was carried away by the idea of a “world monarchy”; in March 1805 he was crowned in Milan with an iron crown. After the Peace of Presburg (see), Francis II renounced the rank of emperor: as early as l805, he began to call himself “hereditary emperor of Austria.” This was the end of the Holy Roman Empire. - Under the Saxon and Franconian emperors, the imperial throne was elective. Every Christian (i.e. Catholic) could be an emperor, although usually a member of one of the powerful princely families in Germany was chosen as emperor. So the Saxon dynasty (919-1024), the Franconian (1024-1125) reigned after Conrad of Franconia, after Lothair of Supplemburg (1125-1138) - the Hohenstaufens (1138-1250), the Habsburgs (1273-1291 and 1298-1308), the House of Luxembourg ( 1308-1313 and 1346-1437), from 1438 - again Habsburgs. The electors elected the emperor. Their independence was legitimized by the golden bull (see). This order lasted until the 30-year war. ABOUT internal structure S. Empire, see Imperial Army, Imperial Deputation, Imp. laws, Imp. districts, Imp. courts, Imp. Sejm
Wed. Bryce, "S. Roman Empire" (Moscow, 1891); Vyzinsky, “The Papacy and the S. Roman Empire in the XIV and XV centuries” (Moscow, 1857); Peter de Andlo (“De imperio Romano”), Landolfo Colonna (“De translatione imp. Rom.”), Dante (“De monarchia”), Engelbert (“De ortu et fine imp. Romani”), Marsilius Patavinus (“De translatione imp. R.”), Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (“De ortu et Authoritate imperii R.”), Zoannetus (“De imp. Rom. atque eius jurisdictione”), Alciatus (“De formula imp. Romani”), Conringius ( "De imp. Rom. Germanico"); Goldast, “Collection of imperial Constitutions”; Moser, "Römische Kayser"; Pütter, “Dissertationes de institutione imperii Romani”; Savigny, “Geschichte d. Rom. Rechts im Mittelalter.”
