Will gravitational waves be detected?
Some observatories are looking for evidence of the existence of gravitational waves. If such waves can be found, these fluctuations in the space-time structure itself will indicate cataclysms occurring in the Universe, such as supernova explosions, collisions of black holes, and possibly still unknown events. For details, see W. Waite Gibbs's article "Spacetime Ripple."
What is the lifetime of a proton?
Some theories that do not fit the standard model (see Chapter 2) predict proton decay, and several detectors have been built to detect such decay. Although the decay itself has not yet been observed, the lower limit of the half-life of the proton is estimated at 10 32 years (significantly exceeding the age of the Universe). With the advent of more sensitive sensors, it may be possible to detect proton decay or the lower limit of its half-life will have to be pushed back.
Are superconductors possible at high temperatures?
Superconductivity appears when metal falls electrical resistance to zero. Under such conditions, the electric current established in the conductor flows without losses, which are characteristic of ordinary current when passing through conductors such as copper wire. The phenomenon of superconductivity was first observed at extremely low temperatures (just above absolute zero, - 273 °C). In 1986, scientists managed to make materials superconducting at the boiling point of liquid nitrogen (-196 °C), which already allowed the creation of industrial products. The mechanism of this phenomenon is not yet fully understood, but researchers are trying to achieve superconductivity at room temperature, which will reduce energy losses.
Chemistry problems
How does the composition of a molecule determine its appearance?
Knowledge of the orbital structure of atoms in simple molecules makes it quite easy to determine appearance molecules. However, theoretical studies of the appearance of complex molecules, especially biologically important ones, have not yet been carried out. One aspect of this problem is protein folding, discussed in Idea List 8.
What are chemical processes for cancer?
Biological factors like heredity and external environment, probably play a large role in the development of cancer. Knowing what happens in cancer cells chemical reactions It may be possible to create molecules to interrupt these reactions and make cells more resistant to cancer.
How do molecules communicate in living cells?
For notification, molecules of the desired shape are used in cells, when the message is transmitted through “adjustment” in the form of complementarity. Protein molecules are the most important, so the way they are folded determines their appearance [conformation]. Therefore, a deeper knowledge of protein folding will help resolve the communication issue.
Where is cell aging determined at the molecular level?
Another biochemical problem of aging may be related to DNA and proteins involved in “repairing” DNA that is cut during repeated replication (see: List of Ideas, 9. Genetic Technologies).
Problems of biology
How does an entire organism develop from one fertilized egg?
This question, it seems, can be answered as soon as it is resolved the main task from ch. 4: what is the structure and purpose of the proteome? Of course, each organism has its own characteristics in the structure of proteins and their purpose, but you will certainly be able to find a lot in common.
What causes mass extinctions?
Over the past 500 million years, complete extinction of species has occurred five times. Science continues to look for the reasons for this. The last extinction, which occurred 65 million years ago, at the turn of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, is associated with the disappearance of dinosaurs. As David Rop poses the question in his book Extinction: Was it genes or luck? (See: Sources for in-depth study), was the extinction of most organisms living at that time caused by genetic factors or some kind of cataclysm? According to the hypothesis put forward by father and son, Luis and Walter Alvarez, a huge meteorite (about 10 km in diameter) fell to Earth 65 million years ago. The impact he made raised huge clouds of dust, which interfered with photosynthesis, which led to the death of many plants, and therefore the animals that made up the same food chain, up to the huge but vulnerable dinosaurs. Confirmation of this hypothesis is a large meteorite crater discovered in the southern Gulf of Mexico in 1993. Is it possible that previous extinctions were the result of similar collisions? Research and debate continue.
Were dinosaurs warm-blooded or cold-blooded animals?
British anatomy professor Richard Owen coined the term "dinosaur" (meaning "terrible lizards") in 1841, when only three incomplete skeletons were found. British animal artist and sculptor Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins began recreating the appearance of extinct animals. Since the first specimens found had iguana-like teeth, his stuffed animals resembled huge iguanas, causing quite a stir among visitors.
But lizards are cold-blooded reptiles, and therefore at first they decided that dinosaurs were like that. Several scientists then suggested that at least some dinosaurs were warm-blooded animals. There was no evidence until 2000, when a fossilized dinosaur heart was discovered in South Dakota. Having a four-chamber structure, this heart confirms the assumption that dinosaurs were warm-blooded, since the lizard heart has only three chambers. However, more evidence is needed to convince the rest of the world of this assumption.
What is the basis of human consciousness?
As a subject of study in the humanities, this issue goes far beyond the scope of this book, but many of our scientific colleagues are taking up its study.
As you might expect, there are several approaches to the interpretation of human consciousness. Proponents of reductionism argue that the brain is a huge collection of interacting molecules and that eventually we will unravel the rules of their operation (see the article by Crick and Koch “The Problem of Consciousness” [In the World of Science. 1992. No. 11–12]).
Another approach goes back to quantum mechanics. According to him, we are not able to comprehend the nonlinearity and unpredictability of the brain until we understand the connections between the atomic and macroscopic levels of the behavior of matter (see the book by Roger Penrose The New Mind of the King: On Computers, Thinking and the Laws of Physics [M., 2003]; and also Shadows of the Mind: In Search of a Science of Consciousness [M., 2003]).
According to the long-standing approach, the human mind has a mystical component that is inaccessible to scientific explanation, so that science cannot comprehend human consciousness at all.
In connection with Stephen Wolfram's recent work on creating orderly images by repeatedly using the same simple rules(see Chapter 5) it should not be surprising that this approach is used in relation to human consciousness; This will give you another point of view.
Problems of Geology
What causes big changes in the Earth's climate, like widespread warming and ice ages?
Ice ages, characteristic of the Earth for the last 35 million years, occurred approximately every 100 thousand years. Glaciers advance and retreat throughout the northern temperate zone, leaving memorials in the form of rivers, lakes and seas. 30 million years ago, when dinosaurs roamed the Earth, the climate was much warmer than today, so trees grew even near the North Pole. As already mentioned in Chap. 5, the temperature of the earth's surface depends on the equilibrium state of incoming and outgoing energies. Many factors influence this balance, including the energy emitted by the Sun, debris in space that the Earth navigates through, incoming radiation, changes in the Earth's orbit, atmospheric changes, and variations in the amount of energy the Earth emits (albedo).
This is the direction in which research is being conducted, especially taking into account the flared up Lately controversy over the greenhouse effect. There are many theories, but there is still no true understanding of what is happening.
Is it possible to predict volcanic eruptions or earthquakes?
Some volcanic eruptions are predictable, such as the recent (1991) eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, but others are not. modern means, - still taking volcanologists by surprise (for example, the eruption of Mount St. Helens, Washington, May 18, 1980). Many factors cause volcanic eruptions. There is no single theoretical approach that would be true for all volcanoes.
Earthquakes are even more difficult to predict than volcanic eruptions. Some well-known geologists even doubt the possibility of making a reliable forecast (see: List of Ideas, 13. Earthquake Prediction).
What happens in the earth's core?
The two lower shells of the Earth, the outer and inner core, are inaccessible to us due to their deep location and high pressure, which excludes direct measurements. Geologists obtain all information about the earth's cores based on observations of the surface and overall density, composition and magnetic properties, as well as studies using seismic waves. In addition, the study of iron meteorites helps due to the similarity of their formation process with that on Earth. Recent results from seismic waves have revealed different wave speeds in the north-south and east-west directions, indicating a layered solid inner core.
Problems of astronomy
Are we alone in the Universe?
Despite the absence of any experimental evidence of the existence of extraterrestrial life, there are plenty of theories on this matter, as well as attempts to detect news from distant civilizations.
How do galaxies evolve?
As already mentioned in Chap. 6, Edwin Hubble classified all known galaxies according to their appearance. Despite the careful description of their current state, this approach does not allow us to understand the evolution of galaxies. Several theories have been put forward to explain the formation of spiral, elliptical and irregular galaxies. These theories are based on the physics of gas clouds that predate galaxies. Simulations on a supercomputer have made it possible to understand something, but have not yet led to a unified theory of galaxy formation. The creation of such a theory requires additional research.
Are Earth-like planets common?
Mathematical models predict the existence of Earth-like planets ranging from a few to millions within the Milky Way. Powerful telescopes have discovered more than 70 planets beyond solar system, but most are the size of Jupiter or larger. As telescopes improve, it will be possible to find other planets, which will help determine which mathematical model best corresponds to reality.
What is the source of the Y-ray bursts?
Approximately once a day, the strongest γ-rays are observed, which are often more powerful than all others taken together (γ-rays are similar to visible light, but they have a much higher frequency and energy). The phenomenon was first recorded in the late 1960s, but was not reported until the 1970s because all the sensors were used to monitor compliance with the nuclear test ban.
At first, astronomers believed that the sources of these emissions were within the Milky Way. The high intensity of the radiation led to speculation about the proximity of its sources. But as data accumulated, it became obvious that these emissions were coming from everywhere, and were not concentrated in the plane of the Milky Way.
Detected in 1997 by the Hubble Space Telescope, the flare indicated that it came from the periphery of a faint galaxy several billion light years away. Because the source was far from the center of the galaxy, it was unlikely to be a black hole. It is believed that these bursts of γ-ray radiation come from ordinary stars contained in the galactic disk, possibly due to the collision of neutron stars or other celestial bodies still unknown to us.
Why is Pluto so strikingly different from all other planets?
The four inner planets - Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars - are relatively small, rocky and close to the Sun. The four outer planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune - are large, gaseous and distant from the Sun. Now about Pluto. Pluto is small (like the inner planets) and distant from the Sun (like the outer planets). In this sense, Pluto falls out of the general series. It orbits the Sun near a region called the Kuiper belt, which contains many bodies similar to Pluto (some astronomers call them Plutino).
Recently, several museums decided to deprive Pluto of its planetary status. Until more Kuiper Belt bodies can be mapped, the debate over Pluto's status will continue.
How old is the universe?
The age of the Universe can be estimated in several ways. One method estimates the age of chemical elements in the Milky Way from the radioactive decay of elements with known half-lives, based on the assumption that the elements are synthesized (inside supernovae of large stars) at a constant rate. Using this method, the age of the Universe is determined to be 14.5±3 billion years.
Another method involves estimating the age of star clusters based on certain assumptions about the behavior and removal of the clusters. The age of the most ancient clusters is estimated at 11.5 ± 1.3 billion years, and for the Universe - 11–14 billion.
The age of the Universe, determined by the rate of its expansion and the distance to the most distant objects, is 13–14 billion years. The recent discovery of the accelerated expansion of the Universe (see Chapter 6) makes this quantity more uncertain.
Another method has recently been developed. The Hubble Space Telescope, working at its limits, measured the temperatures of the oldest white dwarfs in the M4 globular cluster. (This method is similar to estimating the time elapsed after a fire burned out by the temperature of the ash.) It turned out that the age of the oldest white dwarfs is 12–13 billion years. Assuming that the first stars formed no earlier than 1 billion years after the Big Bang, the age of the Universe is 13–14 billion years, and the estimate serves as a check of indicators obtained by other methods.
In February 2003, data were obtained from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP), which made it possible to most accurately calculate the age of the Universe: 13.7 ± 0.2 billion years.
Are there multiple universes?
According to one possible solution discussed in Chap. 6 of the problem of the accelerated expansion of the Universe, we get a lot of universes inhabiting separate “branes” (multidimensional membranes). For all its speculativeness, this idea gives wide scope for all kinds of speculation. More information about multiple universes can be found in the book Our Cosmic Abode by Martin Rees.
When will the Earth have its next encounter with an asteroid?
Space debris constantly hits the Earth. And that’s why it’s so important to know what size celestial bodies fall on us and how often. Bodies with a diameter of 1 m enter the Earth's atmosphere several times a month. They often explode high altitude, releasing energy equal to a small explosion atomic bomb. About once a century a body 100 m in diameter flies to us, leaving behind a large memory (a noticeable impact). After the explosion of a similar celestial body in 1908 over the Siberian taiga, in the basin of the Podkamennaya Tunguska River [Krasnoyarsk Territory], trees were felled over an area of about 2 thousand km 2.
An impact from a celestial body 1 km across, occurring once every million years, could cause enormous destruction and even cause climate change. A collision with a celestial body 10 km across probably led to the extinction of dinosaurs at the turn of the Cretaceous and Tertiary eras 65 million years ago. Although a body this size might only appear once every 100 million years, steps are already being taken on Earth to avoid being caught off guard. The Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) and Near-Earth Asteroid Observations (NEAT) projects are being developed, according to which by 2010 it will be possible to track 90% of asteroids with a diameter of more than 1 km, the total number of which, according to various estimates, is within 500 -1000. Another program, Spacewatch, run by the University of Arizona, monitors the sky for possible Earth impact candidates.
For more detailed information, please visit the World Wide Web nodes: http://neat.jpl. nasa. gov, http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov and http://apacewatch.Ipl. arizona. edu/
What happened before the Big Bang?
Since time and space begin with the Big Bang, the concept of “before” has no meaning. This is equivalent to asking what is north of the North Pole. Or, as the American writer Gertrude Stein would put it, there is no “then” then. But such difficulties do not stop theorists. Perhaps before the “big bang” time was imaginary; there was probably nothing at all, and the Universe arose from a fluctuation of the vacuum; or there was a collision with another “brane” (see the question raised earlier about multiple universes). Such theories are difficult to find experimental confirmation, since the enormous temperature of the original fireball did not allow the creation of any atomic or subatomic formations that could exist before the expansion of the Universe began.
Notes:
Occam's razor - the principle that everything should be sought for the simplest interpretation; Most often this principle is formulated as follows: “Unnecessarily one should not assert many things” (pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate) or: “What can be explained by means of less should not be expressed by means of more” (frustra fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora ). The formulation usually cited by historians, “Entities should not be multiplied without necessity” (entia non sunt multiplicandasine necessitate), is not found in Occam’s writings (these are the words of Durand of Saint-Pourcin, c. 1270–1334, a French theologian and Dominican monk; a very similar expression appears for the first time found in the French Franciscan monk Odo Rigaud, ca. 1205–1275).
So-called topological tunnels. Other names for these hypothetical objects are the Einstein-Rosen (1909–1995), Podolsky (1896–1966) bridges, and the Schwarzschild neck (1873–1916). Tunnels can connect both individual, arbitrarily distant regions of space in our Universe, and regions with different moments of the beginning of its inflation. Currently, there is an ongoing discussion about the feasibility of tunnels, their permeability and evolution.
Kuiper Gerard Peter (1905–1973) – Dutch and American astronomer. The satellite of Uranus - Miranda (1948), the satellite of Neptune - Nereid (1949), carbon dioxide in the atmosphere of Mars, the atmosphere of Saturn's satellite Titan were discovered. Compiled several detailed atlases of photographs of the Moon. Identified many double stars and white dwarfs.
A satellite named in memory of the initiator of this experiment, astrophysicist David T. Wilkinson. Weight 840 kg. Byt was launched in June 2001 into a circumsolar orbit, to the Lagrange point L2 (1.5 million km from the Earth), where the gravitational forces of the Earth and the Sun are equal to each other and the conditions for precision observations of the entire sky are most favorable. From the Sun, Earth and Moon (the closest sources of thermal noise), the receiving equipment is protected by a large round screen, on the illuminated side of which solar panels are placed. This orientation is maintained throughout the flight. Two receiving mirrors with an area of 1.4 x 1.6 m, placed back to back, scan the sky away from the orientation axis. As a result of the rotation of the station around its own axis, 30% of the celestial sphere is visible per day. WMAP's resolution is 30 times greater than that of the previous COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite, launched by NASA in 1989. The size of the measured cell in the sky is 0.2x0.2°, which immediately affected the accuracy of celestial maps. The sensitivity of the receiving equipment has also increased many times. For example, an array of COBE data obtained over 4 years is collected in just 10 days in the new experiment.
For several seconds, a dazzling bright fireball was observed moving across the sky from southeast to northwest. Along the path of the fireball, which was visible over a vast territory of Eastern Siberia (within a radius of up to 800 km), there was a powerful dust trail that persisted for several hours. After the light phenomena, an explosion was heard at a distance of over 1000 km. In many villages, shaking of the soil and buildings, similar to an earthquake, was felt, window glass was cracking, household utensils were falling from shelves, hanging objects were swinging, etc. Many people, as well as domestic animals, were knocked off their feet by the air wave. Seismographs in Irkutsk and in a number of places in Western Europe recorded a seismic wave. The air blast wave was recorded on barograms obtained at many Siberian weather stations, in St. Petersburg and a number of weather stations in Great Britain. These phenomena are most fully explained by the comet hypothesis, according to which they were caused by the invasion of the earth's atmosphere by a small comet moving at cosmic speed. According to modern ideas, comets consist of frozen water and various gases with admixtures of nickel iron and rocky substances. G.I. Petrov in 1975 determined that the “Tunguska body” was very loose and no more than 10 times the density of air at the surface of the Earth. It was a loose lump of snow with a radius of 300 m and a density of less than 0.01 g/cm. At an altitude of about 10 km, the body turned into a gas that dissipated into the atmosphere, which explains the unusually light nights in Western Siberia and Europe after this event. The shock wave that fell to the ground caused the forest to fall.
Gertrude Stein (1874–1946) - American writer, literary theorist!. Modernist. Formally, experimental prose (“The Making of Americans,” 1906–1908, published 1925) in the mainstream of literature! "stream of consciousness". Biographical book "The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas" (1933). Stein owns the expression “lost generation” (in Russian: Stein G. Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. St. Petersburg, 2000; Stein G. Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas. Picasso. Lectures in America. M., 2001).
A hint of the words there is no there, there from chapter 4! the 1936 novella (published 1937) “The Biography of Everyone,” a sequel to her famous novel “The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas.”
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This article lists some of the problems in biology that remain unresolved to this day. Widely known problems Biological aging: Different theories of aging give different reasons why it occurs. There are genetic,... ... Wikipedia
I. Subject and structure of physics Physics is a science that studies the simplest and at the same time the most general laws of natural phenomena, the properties and structure of matter and the laws of its motion. Therefore, the concepts of F. and other laws underlie everything... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
The science of comparison, the study of cultures, in America. traditions, part or synonym of cultural anthropology, in European (British and French) an analogue of social anthropology, in German countries. languages are independent. direction of research. Basic unit... ... Encyclopedia of Cultural Studies
Paradigm- (Paradigm) Definition of a paradigm, history of the emergence of a paradigm Information about the definition of a paradigm, history of the emergence of a paradigm Contents Contents History of emergence Special cases (linguistics) Management paradigm Paradigm... ... Investor Encyclopedia
Modernization- (Modernization) Modernization is the process of changing something in accordance with the requirements of modern times, the transition to more perfect conditions, by introducing various new updates The theory of modernization, types of modernization, organic... ... Investor Encyclopedia
PETROV Mikhail Konstantinovich- (1924 1987) Russian philosopher, cultural scientist, sociologist, linguist. He specially studied the problems of the science of science, in particular scientometrics, as well as the history of science and the sociology of knowledge. P.’s special area of interest is thesaurus dynamics (in 1986 he ... ... Sociology: Encyclopedia
JOHN PAUL II- K. Wojtyla with his parents. Photo. Beginning 20s XX century K. Wojtyla with her parents. Photo. Beginning 20s XX century (05/18/1920, Wadowice, near Krakow, Poland 04/2/2005, Vatican; before the election of Pope Karol Józef Wojtyła), Pope (from October 16... ... Orthodox Encyclopedia
Byzantinology, branch of history. science that studies the history and culture of Byzantium. The emergence of V. Intensive economic, political. and cultural ties between Byzantium and different countries Europe and Asia, high level development of Byzantium. culture that has... Soviet historical encyclopedia
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Books
- , Berezhko Evgeniy Grigorievich. The book is written based on a course of lectures on the fundamentals of space physics, which the author read for a number of years to students of the Faculty of Physics of the North-Eastern Federal University (before...
- Introduction to space physics. Tutorial. UMO stamp on classical university education, Evgeniy Grigorievich Berezhko. The book is written on the basis of a course of lectures on the fundamentals of space physics, which the author read for a number of years to students of the Faculty of Physics of the North-Eastern Federal University (until 2010...
Unsolved problems
Now, having understood how science fits into human mental activity and how it functions, we can see that its openness allows us to go in various ways to a more complete comprehension of the Universe. New phenomena arise about which hypotheses remain silent, and in order to break it, new hypotheses are put forward, complete fresh ideas. Based on them, predictions are refined. New experimental equipment is being created. All this activity leads to the emergence of hypotheses that more accurately reflect the behavior of the Universe. And all this for the sake of one goal - to understand the Universe in all its diversity.
Scientific hypotheses can be considered as answers to questions about the structure of the Universe. Our task is to study the five largest problems that have not been solved to date. The word “largest” refers to problems that have far-reaching consequences, are the most important for our further understanding, or have the most significant applied significance. We will limit ourselves to one major unsolved problem, taken from each of the five branches of natural science, and will try to describe how their solution can be accelerated. Of course, the sciences about man and society, the humanities and applied ones, have their own unresolved problems (for example, the nature of consciousness), but this issue is beyond the scope of this book.
Here are the largest unsolved problems we selected in each of the five branches of natural science and what guided our choice.
Physics. The motion-related properties of body mass (velocity, acceleration and torque, along with kinetic and potential energy) are well known to us. And the nature of the mass itself, inherent in many, but not all elementary particles of the Universe, is not clear to us. The biggest unsolved problem in physics is: why do some particles have [rest] mass and others do not?
Chemistry. The study of chemical reactions of living and nonliving bodies is carried out widely and very successfully. The biggest unsolved problem in chemistry is: what kind of chemical reactions pushed atoms to form the first living things?
Biology. Recently it was possible to obtain the genome, or molecular blueprint, of many living organisms. Genomes carry information about the common proteins, or proteome, of living organisms. The biggest unsolved problem in biology is: what is the structure and purpose of the proteome?
Geology. The plate tectonics model satisfactorily describes the consequences of the interaction of the Earth's upper shells. But atmospheric phenomena, especially weather types, seem to defy attempts to create models that lead to reliable forecasts. The biggest unsolved problem in geology is: is accurate long-term weather forecast possible?
Astronomy. Although many sides common device The universe is well known, but there is still much that is unclear in its development. The recent discovery that the rate of expansion of the Universe is increasing leads to the idea that it will expand indefinitely. The biggest unsolved problem in astronomy is: why is the universe expanding at an ever-increasing rate?
Many other interesting questions related to these problems will arise along the way, and some of them may themselves become major ones in the future. This is discussed in the final section of the book: “The List of Ideas.”
William Harvey, an English physician of the 17th century who determined the nature of blood circulation, said: “Everything that we know is infinitely small compared with what we do not yet know” [Anatomical Study of the Movement of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 1628]. And this is true, since questions are multiplying faster than they can be answered. As the space illuminated by science expands, the darkness surrounding it also increases.
From the book Interesting about astronomy author Tomilin Anatoly Nikolaevich5. Problems of relativistic celestial navigation One of the most disgusting tests that a pilot, and now an astronaut, is subjected to, as shown in the movies, is the carousel. We, pilots of the recent past, once called it a “turntable” or “separator.” Those who don't
From the book Five Unsolved Problems of Science by Wiggins ArthurProblems in Physics What is the nature of light? Light behaves like a wave in some cases, and like a particle in many others. The question is: what is he? Neither one nor the other. Particle and wave are just a simplified representation of the behavior of light. In fact, light is not a particle
From the book The Self-Aware Universe. How consciousness creates the material world by Amit GoswamiProblems of chemistry How does the composition of a molecule determine its appearance? Knowledge of the orbital structure of atoms in simple molecules makes it quite easy to determine the appearance of a molecule. However, theoretical studies of the appearance of complex molecules, especially biologically important ones, have not yet been
From the book The World in a Nutshell [ill. book-magazine] author Hawking Stephen WilliamProblems of biology How does a whole organism develop from one fertilized egg? This question, it seems, can be answered as soon as the main problem from Chapter. 4: what is the structure and purpose of the proteome? Of course, each organism has its own
From the book History of the Laser author Bertolotti MarioProblems of Geology What causes major changes in the Earth's climate, such as widespread warming and ice ages? Ice ages, which have characterized the Earth for the last 35 million years, occurred approximately every 100 thousand years. Glaciers advance and retreat throughout
From the book The Atomic Problem by Ran PhilipProblems of astronomy Are we alone in the Universe? Despite the lack of any experimental evidence of the existence of extraterrestrial life, there are plenty of theories on this subject, as well as attempts to detect news from distant civilizations. How do they evolve
From the book Asteroid-Comet Hazard: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow author Shustov Boris Mikhailovich From the book The King's New Mind [On computers, thinking and the laws of physics] by Penrose RogerUnsolved problems of modern physics
From the book Gravity [From crystal spheres to wormholes] author Petrov Alexander NikolaevichTheoretical problems Insert from Wikipedia.Psychedelic - August 2013 Below is a list of unsolved problems in modern physics. Some of these problems are theoretical in nature, meaning that existing theories are unable to explain certain
From the book Ideal Theory [The Battle for General Relativity] by Ferreira PedroCHAPTER 14 SOLUTION IN SEARCH OF A PROBLEM OR MANY PROBLEMS WITH THE SAME SOLUTION? APPLICATIONS OF LASERS In 1898, Mr. Wells imagined in his book The War of the Worlds the takeover of the Earth by Martians, who used death rays that could easily pass through bricks, burn forests, and
From the author's bookII. Social side of the problem This side of the problem is, without a doubt, the most important and most interesting. In view of its great complexity, we will limit ourselves here to only the most general considerations.1. Changes in world economic geography. As we saw above, the cost
From the author's book1.2. Astronomical aspect of the ACO problem The question of assessing the significance of the asteroid-comet hazard is associated, first of all, with our knowledge of the population of the Solar System with small bodies, especially those that can collide with the Earth. Astronomy provides such knowledge.
From the author's book From the author's book From the author's bookNew problems of cosmology Let us return to the paradoxes of non-relativistic cosmology. Let us remember that the reason for the gravitational paradox is that to unambiguously determine the gravitational influence, either there are not enough equations, or there is no way to correctly set
From the author's bookChapter 9. Unification Problems In 1947, freshly graduated from graduate school, Brice DeWitt met with Wolfgang Pauli and told him that he was working on quantizing the gravitational field. Devitt did not understand why the two great concepts of the 20th century - quantum physics and general theory
Where you can, among other things, join the project and take part in its discussion.
High
| March 27-30, 2011 information from the article “ Unsolved problems of modern physics" appeared on the main page in the column " Did you know" The column contained the following text: “There is an opinion that the number unsolved problems of modern physics has decreased by four points over the past decades". The full issue of the column can be found in the archive of the “Did You Know” section. |
The article is a translation of the corresponding English version. Lev Dubovoy 09:51, March 10, 2011 (UTC)
"Pioneer" effect[edit code]
We found an explanation for the Pioneer effect. Should I remove it from the list now? Russians are coming! 20:55, August 28, 2012 (UTC)
There are many explanations for the effect, none of them is currently generally accepted. IMHO let it hang for now :) Evatutin 19:35, September 13, 2012 (UTC) Yes, but, as I understand it, this is the first explanation that is consistent with the observed deviation in speed. Although I agree that we need to wait. Russians are coming! 05:26, 14 September 2012 (UTC)
particle physics[edit code]
Generations of matter:
Why three generations of particles are needed is still not completely clear. The hierarchy of coupling constants and masses of these particles is not clear. It is not clear whether there are other generations besides these three. It is unknown whether there are other particles that we don't know about. It's not clear why the Higgs boson, just discovered at the Large Hadron Collider, is so light. There are others important questions, which the Standard Model does not answer.
Higgs particle [edit code]
The Higgs particle has also already been found. --195.248.94.136 10:51, September 6, 2012 (UTC)
While physicists are cautious with conclusions, perhaps he is not alone there, different decay channels are being investigated - IMHO let it hang for now... Evatutin 19:33, September 13, 2012 (UTC) Only solved problems that were on the list are moved to the section Unsolved problems of modern physics #Problems solved in recent decades .--Arbnos 10:26, December 1, 2012 (UTC)
Neutrino mass[edit code]
It has been known for a long time. But the section is called Problems solved over the past decades - it seems that the problem was solved not so long ago, after the portals on the list.--Arbnos 14:15, July 2, 2013 (UTC)
Horizon problem[edit code]
This is what you call “same temperature”: http://img818.imageshack.us/img818/1583/img606x341spaceplanck21.jpg ??? This is the same as saying "Problem 2+2=5". This is not a problem at all, since this statement is fundamentally incorrect.
- I think the new video "Space" will be useful: http://video.euronews.com/flv/mag/130311_SESU_121A0_R.flv
Laws of aerohydrodynamics[edit code]
I propose to add one more unsolved problem to the list - even one related to classical mechanics, which is usually considered completely studied and simple. The problem of a sharp discrepancy between the theoretical laws of aerohydrodynamics and experimental data. The results of simulations performed using Euler's equations do not correspond to the results obtained in wind tunnels. As a result, in aerohydrodynamics there are currently no working systems of equations that could be used to make aerodynamic calculations. There are a number of empirical equations that describe experiments well only within a narrow framework of a number of conditions, and there is no way to make calculations in the general case.
The situation is even absurd - in the 21st century, all developments in aerodynamics are carried out through tests in wind tunnels, while in all other areas of technology they have long made do only with accurate calculations, without then re-checking them experimentally. 62.165.40.146 10:28, September 4, 2013 (UTC) Valeev Rustam
No, there are enough tasks for which there is not enough computing power in other areas, in thermodynamics, for example. There are no fundamental difficulties, the models are simply extremely complex. --Renju player 15:28, November 1, 2013 (UTC)
Nonsense [edit code]
FIRSTIs spacetime fundamentally continuous or discrete?
The question is very poorly formulated. Spacetime is either continuous or discrete. So far, modern physics cannot answer this question. This is the problem. But in this formulation, something completely different is asked: here both options are taken as a single whole “ continuous or discrete” and asks: “Is space-time fundamentally continuous or discrete?. The answer is yes, spacetime is continuous or discrete. And I have a question, why did you ask this? You can't phrase the question like that. Apparently, the author retold Ginzburg poorly. And what is meant by “ fundamentally"? >> Kron7 10:16, 10 September 2013 (UTC)
Can be restated as “Is space continuous or is it discrete?” This formulation seems to exclude the meaning of the question given by you. Dair T"arg 15:45, September 10, 2013 (UTC) Yes, this is a completely different matter. Corrected. >> Kron7 07:18, September 11, 2013 (UTC)
Yes, space-time is discrete, since only absolutely empty space can be continuous, and space-time is far from empty
;SECONDInertial mass/gravitational mass ratio for elementary particles In accordance with the principle of equivalence of the general theory of relativity, the ratio of inertial mass to gravitational mass for all elementary particles is equal to unity. However, there is no experimental confirmation of this law for many particles.In particular, we do not know what will be weight macroscopic piece of antimatter known masses .
How should we understand this proposal? >> Kron7 14:19, September 10, 2013 (UTC)
Weight, as you know, is the force with which the body acts on a support or suspension. Mass is measured in kilograms, weight in newtons. In zero gravity, a body weighing one kilogram will have zero weight. The question of what the weight of a piece of antimatter of a given mass will be is thus not a tautology. --Renju player 11:42, November 21, 2013 (UTC)
Well, what’s unclear? And we need to ask the question: how does space differ from time? Yakov176.49.146.171 19:59, November 23, 2013 (UTC)And we need to remove the question about the time machine: this is anti-scientific nonsense. Yakov176.49.75.100 21:47, November 24, 2013 (UTC)
Hydrodynamics [edit code]
Hydrodynamics is one of the branches of modern physics, along with mechanics, field theory, quantum mechanics, etc. By the way, hydrodynamic methods are actively used in cosmology, in the study of problems of the universe (Ryabina 14:43, November 2, 2013 (UTC))
You may be confusing the complexity of computational problems with fundamentally unsolved problems. Thus, the N-body problem has not yet been solved analytically, in some cases it presents significant difficulties with an approximate numerical solution, but it does not contain any fundamental riddles and secrets of the universe. There are no fundamental difficulties in hydrodynamics, there are only computational and model ones, but they are in abundance. In general, let's be more careful in separating the warm and the soft. --Renju player 07:19, November 5, 2013 (UTC)
Computational problems are unsolved problems in mathematics, not physics. Yakov176.49.185.224 07:08, November 9, 2013 (UTC)
Minus substance [edit code]
To the theoretical questions of physics, I would add the hypothesis of minus matter. This hypothesis is purely mathematical: mass can have a negative value. Like any purely mathematical hypothesis, it is logically consistent. But, if we take the philosophy of physics, then this hypothesis contains a disguised rejection of determinism. Although, perhaps, there are still undiscovered laws of physics that describe minus matter. --Yakov 176.49.185.224 07:08, November 9, 2013 (UTC)
Sho tse take? (where did they get it from?) --Tpyvvikky ..for mathematicians, time can be negative.. and what now
Superconductivity[edit code]
What are the problems with the BCS, what is written in the article about the lack of “a completely satisfactory microscopic theory of superconductivity”? The reference is to a textbook from the 1963 edition, a slightly outdated source for an article on modern problems in physics. I'm removing this passage for now. --Renju player 08:06, 21 August 2014 (UTC)
Cold fusion[edit code]
"What is the explanation for the controversial reports on excess heat, radiation and transmutation?" The explanation is that they are unreliable/incorrect/erroneous. At least by standards modern science. Links are dead. Deleted. 95.106.188.102 09:59, October 30, 2014 (UTC)
Copy [edit code]
Copy of the article http://ensiklopedia.ru/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%88%D1%91%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0 %B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%80 %D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0 %B8 .--Arbnos 00:06, November 8, 2015 (UTC)
Absolute time[edit code]
According to STR, there is no absolute time, so the question about the age of the Universe (and even about the future of the Universe) makes no sense. 37.215.42.23 00:24, March 19, 2016 (UTC)
I'm afraid you're off topic. Soshenkov (obs.) 23:45, March 16, 2017 (UTC)
Hamiltonian formalism and Newton's differential paradigm[edit code]
1. Is most fundamental problem in physics amazing fact that (so far) all fundamental theories are expressed through the Hamiltonian formalism?
2. Is even more amazing and by a completely inexplicable fact, Newton’s hypothesis encrypted in the second anagram that that the laws of nature are expressed through differential equations? Is this hypothesis exhaustive or does it allow for other mathematical generalizations?
3. Problem biological evolution Is it a consequence of fundamental physical laws, or is it an independent phenomenon? Isn't the phenomenon of biological evolution a direct consequence of Newton's differential hypothesis? Soshenkov (obs.) 23:43, March 16, 2017 (UTC)
Space, time and mass[edit code]
What are "space" and "time"? How do massive bodies “bend” space and affect time? How does “curved” space interact with bodies, causing universal gravity, and photons, changing their trajectory? And what does entropy have to do with it? (Explanation. General relativity provides formulas by which one can, for example, calculate relativistic corrections for the clocks of the global navigation satellite system, but it does not even pose the listed questions. If we consider the analogy with gas thermodynamics, then general relativity corresponds to the level of gas thermodynamics at the level of macroscopic parameters (pressure , density, temperature), and here we need an analogue at the level of the molecular kinetic theory of gas. Maybe hypothetical theories of quantum gravity will explain what we are looking for...) P36M AKrigel / obs 17:36, December 31, 2018 (UTC) It is interesting to know the reasons and see the link for discussion. That’s why I asked here, a well-known unsolved problem, more well-known in society than most of the article (in my subjective opinion). Even children are told about it for educational purposes: in Moscow, at the Experimentarium, there is a separate stand with this effect. Those who disagree, please respond. Jukier (obs.) 06:33, 1 January 2019 (UTC)
- Everything is simple here. “Serious” scientific journals are afraid to publish materials on controversial and unclear issues, so as not to lose their reputation. Nobody reads articles in other publications and the results published in them do not influence anything. Polemics are generally published in exceptional cases. Textbook authors try to avoid writing about what they do not understand. The encyclopedia is not a place for discussion. The VP rules require that the material of articles be based on AI, and that in disputes between participants a consensus must be reached. Neither of these requirements can be achieved in the case of the publication of an article on unsolved problems in physics. Ranque tube only special example big problem. In theoretical meteorology the situation is more serious. The question of thermal equilibrium in the atmosphere is basic, it is impossible to hush it up, but there is no theory. Without this, all other reasoning is devoid of scientific basis. Professors do not tell students about this problem as unsolved, and textbooks lie in different ways. We are talking primarily about the equilibrium temperature gradient]
Synodic period and rotation around the axis of the planets terrestrial group. The Earth and Venus are turned with one side towards each other while they are on the same axis with the sun. Just like the Earth and Mercury. Those. Mercury's rotation period is synchronized with the Earth, not the Sun (although for a very long time it was believed that it would be synchronized with the Sun as the Earth was synchronized with the Moon). speakus (obs.) 18:11, March 9, 2019 (UTC)
- If you find a source that talks about this as an unsolved problem, then you can add it. - Alexey Kopylov 21:00, March 15, 2019 (UTC)
Below we present a list of unsolved problems in modern physics.
Some of these problems are theoretical. This means that existing theories are unable to explain certain observed phenomena or experimental results.
Other problems are experimental, meaning that there are difficulties in creating an experiment to test a proposed theory or to study a phenomenon in more detail.
Some of these problems are closely interrelated. For example, extra dimensions or supersymmetry can solve the hierarchy problem. It is believed that a complete theory of quantum gravity can answer most of these questions.
What will the end of the Universe be like?
The answer largely depends on dark energy, which remains an unknown member of the equation.
Dark energy is responsible for the accelerating expansion of the Universe, but its origin is a mystery. If dark energy is constant over time, we are likely to experience a "big freeze": the Universe will continue to expand faster, and eventually galaxies will move so far apart that the current emptiness of space will seem like child's play.
If dark energy increases, the expansion will become so fast that the space not only between galaxies will increase, but also between stars, that is, the galaxies themselves will be torn apart; this option is called the "big gap".
Another scenario is that dark energy will decrease and can no longer counteract gravity, causing the Universe to collapse (the “big crunch”).
Well, the point is that, no matter how events unfold, we are doomed. Before this, however, there are still billions or even trillions of years - enough to figure out how the Universe will perish.
Quantum gravity
Despite active research, the theory of quantum gravity has not yet been constructed. The main difficulty in its construction is that the two physical theories it attempts to link together—quantum mechanics and general relativity (GR)—rely on different sets of principles.
Thus, quantum mechanics is formulated as a theory that describes the temporal evolution of physical systems (for example, atoms or elementary particles) against the background of external space-time.
In general relativity there is no external space-time — it itself is a dynamic variable of the theory, depending on the characteristics of those in it classic systems
When moving to quantum gravity, at a minimum, it is necessary to replace the systems with quantum ones (that is, quantize). The emerging connection requires some kind of quantization of the geometry of space-time itself, and the physical meaning of such quantization is absolutely unclear and there is no successful, consistent attempt to carry it out.
Even an attempt to quantize the linearized classical theory of gravity (GTR) encounters numerous technical difficulties — quantum gravity turns out to be a non-renormalizable theory due to the fact that the gravitational constant is a dimensional quantity.
The situation is aggravated by the fact that direct experiments in the field of quantum gravity, due to the weakness of the gravitational interactions themselves, are inaccessible to modern technologies. In this regard, in the search for the correct formulation of quantum gravity, we have to rely only on theoretical calculations.
The Higgs boson makes absolutely no sense. Why does it exist?
The Higgs boson explains how all other particles acquire mass, but it also raises many new questions. For example, why does the Higgs boson interact with all particles differently? Thus, the t-quark interacts with it more strongly than the electron, which is why the mass of the first is much higher than that of the second.
In addition, the Higgs boson is the first elementary particle with zero spin.
“We have a completely new field of particle physics,” says scientist Richard Ruiz, “we have no idea what its nature is.”
Hawking radiation
Do black holes produce thermal radiation as theory predicts? Does this radiation contain information about their internal structure or not, as Hawking's original calculation suggests?
Why did it happen that the Universe consists of matter and not antimatter?
Antimatter is the same matter: it has exactly the same properties as the substance from which planets, stars, and galaxies are made.
The only difference is the charge. According to modern ideas, in the newborn Universe there was an equal amount of both. Shortly after the Big Bang, matter and antimatter annihilated (reacted to mutually annihilate and create other particles of each other).
The question is, how did it happen that some amount of matter still remained? Why did matter succeed and antimatter lose the tug-of-war?
To explain this inequality, scientists are diligently looking for examples of CP violation, that is, processes in which particles prefer to decay to form matter rather than antimatter.
“First of all, I would like to understand whether neutrino oscillations (the transformation of neutrinos into antineutrinos) differ between neutrinos and antineutrinos,” says Alicia Marino from the University of Colorado, who shared the question. “Nothing like this has ever been seen before, but we look forward to the next generation of experiments.”
Theory of everything
Is there a theory that explains the values of all fundamental physical constants? Is there a theory that explains why the laws of physics are the way they are?
To denote a theory that would unify all four fundamental interactions in nature.
During the twentieth century, many "theories of everything" have been proposed, but none have been tested experimentally, or there are significant difficulties in establishing experimental testing for some of the candidates.
Bonus: Ball Lightning
What is the nature of this phenomenon? Is ball lightning an independent object or is it fed by energy from the outside? Are all ball lightnings of the same nature or are there different types?
Ball lightning is a luminous ball of fire floating in the air, a uniquely rare natural phenomenon.
To date, no unified physical theory of the occurrence and course of this phenomenon has been presented; there are also scientific theories that reduce the phenomenon to hallucinations.
There are about 400 theories that explain the phenomenon, but none of them have received absolute recognition in the academic environment. In laboratory conditions, similar but short-term phenomena were obtained in several different ways, so the question about the nature of ball lightning remains open. At the end of the 20th century, not a single experimental stand had been created in which this natural phenomenon would be artificially reproduced in accordance with the descriptions of eyewitnesses of ball lightning.
It is widely believed that ball lightning is a phenomenon of electrical origin, natural nature, that is, it represents special type lightning, which exists for a long time and has the shape of a ball, capable of moving along an unpredictable trajectory, sometimes surprising to eyewitnesses.
Traditionally, the reliability of many eyewitness accounts of ball lightning remains in doubt, including:
- the very fact of observing at least some phenomenon;
- the fact of observing ball lightning, and not some other phenomenon;
- individual details of the phenomenon given in an eyewitness account.
Doubts about the reliability of many evidence complicate the study of the phenomenon, and also create the ground for the appearance of various speculative and sensational materials allegedly related to this phenomenon.
Based on materials from: several dozen articles from
- Everything is simple here. “Serious” scientific journals are afraid to publish materials on controversial and unclear issues, so as not to lose their reputation. Nobody reads articles in other publications and the results published in them do not influence anything. Polemics are generally published in exceptional cases. Textbook authors try to avoid writing about what they do not understand. The encyclopedia is not a place for discussion. The VP rules require that the material of articles be based on AI, and that in disputes between participants a consensus must be reached. Neither of these requirements can be achieved in the case of the publication of an article on unsolved problems in physics. Ranque tube only special example big problem. In theoretical meteorology the situation is more serious. The question of thermal equilibrium in the atmosphere is basic, it is impossible to hush it up, but there is no theory. Without this, all other reasoning is devoid of scientific basis. Professors do not tell students about this problem as unsolved, and textbooks lie in different ways. We are talking primarily about the equilibrium temperature gradient]
