Crossing plants with each other. Favorite flowers. Own pea and bean seeds

Growing plants at home is a very common hobby. But most hobbyists do not attach importance to the rules of plant care. Although this leaving takes very little time. And the result is worth a hundredfold all the effort spent. After all, if everything is done correctly, then the plants are healthy, grow well and please with their appearance. Therefore, every nature lover who grows plants needs to know the answers to at least the main questions related to this activity.

How to cross plants? Crossing of plants is carried out in order to obtain a new variety with the characteristics necessary for the breeder. Therefore, the first step is to decide what qualities are desired in the new plant. Then the selection of parent plants is made, each of which has one or more of these dominant qualities. It makes sense to use plants that have grown in different regions - this makes their heredity richer. But nevertheless, before embarking on breeding, you should nevertheless familiarize yourself with the specialized literature, for example, with a description of IV Michurin's methods of work.

How to save a plant? There are times when the plant begins to die for some reason. A sore leaf condition is usually the first sign. Then you need to check the state of the stem. If it has become too soft, fragile or rotten, then there is hope that the roots are healthy. But if they also deteriorate, then this means that the plant has died. In other cases, you can try to save him. To do this, you will have to cut off the damaged part. But the stems are not completely cut off, leaving at least a few centimeters above the ground. Then you need to place the plant so as to halve the amount of solar time it receives and water it moderately when the soil is completely dry. Such measures will help the plant fight the disease and new shoots will appear in a few months.

How to care for indoor plants? For plants to be healthy and look beautiful, you need to follow a few mandatory rules. First, you need to water them properly. You cannot fill the plant, it is better to underfill. This should be done when the ground is dry. The water should be at room temperature. It must be remembered that tropical plants also require daily spraying. Another important condition for plant life is lighting. It is imperative to find out the lighting intensity and duration required for the plant and provide the necessary conditions for it. Temperature is the third important factor for plant life and health. Most of them are suitable for room temperature. But some types of colder regions require lower temperatures in winter. This can be achieved by placing the flower on the glassed-in balcony.

Crossing types

In breeding practice, two types of crossing are used:

–simple (one-time)- cross between two varieties (A X B)

Variations:

Simple paired

Reciprocal

Plural

Topcross

Diallelic

–complex (multiple)- three grades and more [(A x B) x C] x D

Variations:

Returnable (bcross)

Convergent

Stepped

Interhybrid

Simple crosses

The selection is carried out directly in the hybrid offspring.

On the basis of simple paired crosses, work with hybrid material is reduced to the selection of hybrid plants in splitting generations and the assessment of their offspring.

This type of crossing is of great importance in intervarietal hybridization than in interspecific hybridization, when a single crossing is not enough to obtain the required combination of traits in a hybrid.

Reciprocal crosses

Reciprocal (forward and backward crossing, the parental form is interchanged) -

each of the two parental components is used in one case as the maternal form, and in the second case as the paternal form.

This type of crossing is especially important for distant hybridization, when, in forward and reverse combinations, the results can be different both in seed setting and hybrid quality.

It is required to check for the presence of genetic material in the cytoplasm of parental forms. Nuclear material is transferred equally during forward and backward crossing; cytoplasm is transmitted to hybrids only through the maternal line. In reciprocal crosses, in some cases, the effect of the cytoplasm of the maternal form may be significant, in others it may not be manifested at all.

11. Complex step and inter-hybrid crosses.

Step crosses

With stepwise hybridization, the resulting hybrid plants are re-crossed with the third variety, and if necessary, then the fourth grade or species is also involved in the crossing, etc. Thus, several parental forms participate in these crosses, which are sequentially (stepwise) included in hybridization ...

With step crosses, hybrid material is created that includes the germplasm of several varieties or even plant species. By selecting, for example, a sequence of stepwise hybridization of a variety, one of which is ripe, the second is high-yielding, and the third is disease-resistant, one can expect to obtain a hybrid that combines all three of these properties.

Inter-hybrid crosses

To create initial material with a wide latitude of genetic variability, it is advisable to use the method of complex or interhybrid crossing.

Its essence lies in the fact that the population is created by crossing a large group of parental forms, and as a rule, F1 individuals are crossed immediately.

For example, the crossing scheme for 16 parental varieties will look like this:

1st year: (1x2); (3x4); (5x6); (7x8); (9x10); (11x12); (13x14); (15x16).

2nd year: (1x2) x (3x4); (5x6) x (7x8); (9x10) x (11x12); (13x14) x (15x16).

3rd year: [(1x2) x (3x4)] x [(5x6) x (7x8)]; [(9x10) x (11x12)] x [(13x14) x (15x16)].

4th year: ([(1x2) x (3x4)] x [(5x6) x (7x8)]) x ([(9x10) x (11x12)] x [(13x14) x (15x16)]).

With this method, during four generations of crossing, the prerequisite for the formation of a recombined genotype is created, the genes of which can originate from all 16 varieties or lines.

Option 1 - difficult step crossing

A x B => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 - we choose noticeable signs A and B, we cross with the variety C => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 - we select noticeable signs A, B, C, we cross with D => F 1 (reseeding) => F 2 select ABSD (1 out of 256). Spent 6 years.

Option 2 - inter-hybrid:

We sow in parallel A x B and C x D => their F 1 we cross each other => F 1 we reseed => F 2 we select ABSD (1 out of 4096 is a huge work). Spent 4 years.

The first option is almost always used.

Oleg asks
Elena Titova answers, 12/01/2013

Oleg asks: "Hello, Elena! Tell me, please, the crossing by scientists of various types of plants, vegetables and fruits is not an interference with God's creation and a sin? Successful such crossings do not jeopardize Creationism? After all, if it turned out to cross different plants, then with with time it will turn out to cross and various animals, a cat with a dog, for example. So there is a possibility that from one simpler living creature a more complex one appeared, and so on until the appearance of man? "

Greetings, Oleg!

Scientists-breeders mainly carry out intraspecific crosses (hybridization) for the appearance of desirable traits (for humans, of course) in animals, plants and microorganisms, thus seeking to create new or improved breeds, varieties, strains.

Within a species, crossing of individuals is relatively easy due to the similarity of their genetic material and anatomical and physiological characteristics. Although this is not always the case, for example, in natural conditions it is impossible to cross a tiny Chihuahua dog and a huge mastiff.

But already on the way of crossing individuals of different species (and even more so of different genera) there are molecular genetic barriers that prevent the development of full-fledged organisms. And they are expressed the more strongly, the further apart the crossed species and genera are from each other. Due to the significantly different genomes of the parents, hybrids can develop unbalanced sets of chromosomes, unfavorable combinations of genes, disrupt the processes of cell division and the formation of gametes (sex cells), death of a zygote (fertilized egg), etc. can occur. Hybrids can be partially or completely sterile (infertile ), with reduced viability up to lethality (although in some cases in the first generation there is a sharp increase in viability - heterosis), developmental anomalies may appear, in particular, of reproductive organs, or so-called chimeric tissues (genetically heterogeneous), etc. Apparently, this is why the Lord warned His people: "... do not bring your cattle together with another kind; do not sow your field with two kinds [of seeds]" ().

Under natural conditions, cases of interspecific crossing are extremely rare.

Examples of artificial distant hybridization are: mule (horse + donkey), bester (beluga + sterlet), liger (lion + tigress), taigon (tiger + lioness), leopon (lion + female leopard), plumkot (plum + apricot), clementine (orange + tangerine), etc. In some cases, scientists manage to remove the negative consequences of distant hybridization, for example, fertile hybrids of wheat and rye (triticale), radish and cabbage (rafanobrassica) were obtained.

And now your questions. Is artificial hybridization an interference with God's creation? In a sense, yes, if a person creates a variant that is different from the natural one, which can be compared, say, with the use of decorative cosmetics by women to improve their appearance. Is artificial hybridization a sin? Is eating meat a sin? The Lord, according to our hardness of heart, allows the killing of living beings for the sake of food. Probably, due to our hardheartedness, he also allows selective experimentation for the sake of improving the consumer properties of the products people need. In the same line - and the creation of drugs (in this case, laboratory animals are used and killed). Sadly, all this is the real reality of a society where sin reigns and "the prince of this world" rules.

Do successful crosses jeopardize creationism? Not at all. Against.

You know that everything multiplies "after its own kind." The biblical "genus" is not a biological species of modern taxonomy. Indeed, a rich variety of species appeared after the Flood due to the variability of the characteristics of terrestrial organisms from Noah's ark and aquatic inhabitants that survived outside the ark, when they were adapted to new environmental conditions. It is difficult to delineate the biblical "kind", the genetic potential of which is significant and was set initially at creation. It may include modern taxa such as species and genus, but probably not above (sub) family. It is possible, for example, that big cats from modern systematic genera of the feline family go back to one original "genus", and small felines - to one or two others. It is clear that the species and genera separated from the biblical "genus" include their own, to some extent depleted and modified (in relation to the original) genetic material. The combination of these incompletely complementary parts (in interspecies and interspecific crosses) encounters obstacles at the molecular-genetic level, which means that it does not allow giving rise to a full-fledged organism, although in rare cases within the biblical "genus" this can happen.

What does this mean? That there can be no crosses of "cat with dog" and "up to man" in principle.

Another moment. Compare 580 thousand base pairs, 482 genes in the DNA of single-celled mycoplasma and 3.2 billion base pairs, about 30 thousand genes in human DNA. If you imagine a hypothetical path "from amoeba to man", think about where the new genetic information came from? There is nowhere for it to come naturally. We know that information only comes from a sane source. So who is the Author of the amoeba and man?

God's blessings!

Read more on the topic "Creation":

Selection- a science that develops ways to create new and improve existing varieties of plants, animal breeds and strains of microorganisms.

The creation of new varieties and breeds is based on such important properties of a living organism as heredity and variability. That is why genetics - the science of the variability and heredity of organisms - is the theoretical basis of selection.

With its own tasks and methods, selection is firmly based on the laws of genetics, is an important area of practical use of the laws established by genetics. At the same time, selection is based on the achievements of other sciences. Today genetics has reached the level of purposeful design of organisms with the necessary traits and properties.

Variety, breed and strain- a stable group of organisms, artificially created by man and having certain hereditary characteristics.

All individuals within the breed, variety and strain have similar, hereditarily fixed morphological, physiological, biochemical and economic characteristics and properties, as well as the same type of response to environmental factors.

The main areas of selection:

high productivity of plant varieties, fertility and productivity of animal breeds;
improving the quality of products (for example, the taste, appearance of fruits and vegetables, the chemical composition of the grain - the content of protein, gluten, essential amino acids, etc.);
physiological properties (early maturity, drought resistance, winter hardiness, resistance to diseases, pests and unfavorable climatic conditions).

breeding of stress-resistant breeds (for breeding in conditions of great crowding - at poultry farms, farms, etc.);
fur farming;
fish farming - fish farming in artificial reservoirs.

DIFFERENCE OF CULTURAL FORMS FROM WILD

Cultural forms	Wild forms
traits that are useful for humans and often harmful in natural conditions are developed	the presence of signs that are inconvenient for humans (aggressiveness, prickly, etc.)
high productivity	low productivity (small fruits; low weight, egg production, milk yield)
adapt worse to changing environmental conditions	high adaptability
do not have means of protection against predators and pests (bitter or poisonous substances, thorns, thorns, etc.)	the presence of natural protective devices that increase vitality, but are inconvenient for humans

basic breeding methods

Basic breeding methods:

selection of parental couples
selection
hybridization
artificial mutagenesis

Selection of parental couples

This method is used primarily in animal breeding, since animals are characterized by sexual reproduction and few offspring.

Breeding a new breed is a lengthy process that requires large material costs. It can be the purposeful obtaining of a certain exterior(a set of phenotypic traits), increased milkiness, fat content of milk, meat quality, etc.

The bred animals are assessed not only by their appearance, but also by their origin and quality of offspring... Therefore, it is necessary to know their pedigree well. In breeding farms, when selecting producers, a record of pedigrees is always kept, in which the exterior features and productivity of parental forms are assessed over a number of generations.

works by I. V. Michurin

Selection work takes a special place in the practice of improving fruit and berry crops. I. V. Michurin. He attached great importance to the selection of parental pairs for crossing. At the same time, he did not use local wild-growing varieties (since they had a persistent heredity, and the hybrid usually deviated towards the wild parent), but took plants from other, remote geographical places and crossed them with each other.

An important link in Michurin's work was purposeful education hybrid seedlings: at a certain period of their development, conditions were created for the dominance of the traits of one of the parents and the suppression of the traits of the other, i.e., effective control of the dominance of traits (different methods of tillage, fertilization, grafting into the crown of another plant, etc.).

Mentor Method- upbringing on the stock. As a scion, Michurin took both a young plant and buds from a mature fruit-bearing tree. This method was able to give the desired color to the fruit of the cherry-cherry hybrid called "Krasa Severa".

Michurin also used distant hybridization. He obtained a peculiar hybrid of cherry and bird cherry - cerapadus, as well as a hybrid of blackthorn and plum, apple and pear, peach and apricot. All Michurin varieties are supported by vegetative propagation.

Selection

Artificial selection- preservation for further reproduction of individuals with traits of interest to the breeder. Selection forms: mass and individual.

Intuitive (unconscious) selection- the most ancient form of selection, used by ancient man: selection of individuals by phenotype, i.e. with the most useful combinations of features.
Methodical selection- selection for reproduction of individuals with clearly defined traits, according to the purpose and taking into account their phenotypes and genotypes.

Mass selection- elimination from reproduction of individuals that do not have valuable traits, or have undesirable traits (for example, aggressive).

Mass selection can be effective if qualitative, easily inherited and easily identifiable traits are selected. Mass selection is usually carried out among cross-pollinated plants. In this case, breeders select plants according to the phenotype with the traits of interest to them. The disadvantage of mass selection is that the breeder may not always be able to determine the best genotype by phenotype.

Individual selection- the selection of individual individuals with characteristics of interest to a person and obtaining offspring from them.

Individual selection is more effective in selecting individuals for quantitative, difficult to inherit traits. This type of selection allows an accurate assessment of the genotype due to the analysis of the inheritance of traits in the offspring. Individual selection is used in relation to self-pollinated plants (varieties of wheat, barley, peas, etc.).

Hybridization

In breeding work with animals, mainly two methods of crossing are used: inbreeding and outbreeding.

Inbreeding- crossing of closely related forms: brothers and sisters or parents and offspring are used as initial forms.

Result: obtaining homozygous organisms → decomposition of the original form into a number of pure lines.

Cons: reduced viability (recessive homozygotes often carry hereditary diseases).

Such crossing is to a certain extent similar to self-pollination in plants, which also leads to an increase in homozygosity and, as a consequence, to the consolidation of economically valuable traits in the offspring. In this case, homozygotization for genes controlling the studied trait occurs the faster, the more closely related crossing is used for inbreeding. However, homozygotization during inbreeding, as in the case of plants, leads to the weakening of animals, reduces their resistance to environmental influences, and increases morbidity.

In breeding, inbreeding is usually only one step in improving a breed. This is followed by crossing of different interlinear hybrids, as a result of which unwanted recessive alleles are transferred into a heterozygous state and the harmful consequences of closely related crossing are noticeably reduced.

Outbreeding- unrelated crossing between individuals of the same breed or different breeds of animals within the same species.

Result: obtaining a large number of heterozygous organisms → maintaining useful qualities and enhancing their expression in a number of future generations.

Distant hybridization - obtaining interspecific and interspecific hybrids.

Remote hybridization in animal breeding is used much less frequently than in plant breeding.

Interspecific and intergeneric hybrids of animals and plants are most often sterile, since meiosis is disturbed and gametogenesis does not occur. At the same time, the restoration of fertility in animals is a more difficult task, since it is impossible to obtain polyploids on the basis of multiplying the number of chromosomes in them.

Overcoming the infertility of interspecific plant hybrids was first achieved in the early 1920s by Soviet genetics G. D. Karpechenko when crossing radish and cabbage. This man-made plant was not like a radish or a cabbage. The pods occupied, as it were, an intermediate position and consisted of two halves, one of which resembled a cabbage pod, the other a radish. Each of the original forms had 9 chromosomes in the germ cells. In this case, the cells of the hybrid obtained from them had 18 chromosomes. But some eggs and pollen grains contained all 18 chromosomes (diploids), and when they were crossed, a plant with 36 chromosomes was created, which turned out to be fertile. This proved the possibility of using polyploid to overcome non-breeding and sterility during distant hybridization.

It happens that individuals of only one sex are infertile. For example, in hybrids of a highland bull yak and cattle, they are sterile. (sterile) males and females are fertile (fertile).

But sometimes gametogenesis in distant hybrids proceeds normally, which made it possible to obtain new valuable breeds of animals. An example is archaromerinos, which, like argali (mountain sheep), can graze high in the mountains, and like merino, they give good wool. Fertile hybrids were obtained from crossing of local (Indian) cattle with zebu. When crossing beluga and sterlet, a fertile hybrid - bester, ferret and mink - honorik was obtained, a hybrid between carp and crucian carp is productive.

In nature, there are hybrids of a zebra and a horse (zebroid), a bison and a bison (bison), a black grouse and a partridge (mezhnyak), a hare and a white hare (cuff), a sable and a fox (kidus), as well as a tiger and a lion (ligr ).

Examples of intergeneric plant hybrids include a hybrid of wheat and rye (triticale), a wheat-wheatgrass hybrid, a hybrid of currants and gooseberries (yoshta), a hybrid of rutabagas and forage cabbage (kuuzika), hybrids of winter rye and wheatgrass, herbaceous and tree-like tomatoes, etc. ...

Heterosis- the phenomenon of increased viability, productivity, fertility of the first generation hybrids, exceeding both parents in these parameters.

Already from the second generation, the heterotic effect fades away. Apparently, this is due to a decrease in the number of heterozygous organisms and an increase in the proportion of homozygotes.

Classic examples of the manifestation of heterosis are a mule (a hybrid of a mare and a donkey) and a hinnie (a hybrid of a horse and a donkey) (Fig. 1, 2). They are strong, hardy animals that can be used in much more difficult conditions than their parental forms.

Rice. 1. Mule Fig. 2. Loshak

Their lifespan is significantly longer than that of the parental species.

The horse is smaller than a mule and is obstinate, therefore it is less convenient for use in human economic activities.

Heterosis is widely used in industrial poultry farming, for example - broiler chickens, which are characterized by very fast growth. Chicken broiler - the final hybrid obtained by crossing several lines of different breeds of chickens (meat parental forms), tested for compatibility. Initially, the Cornish (as the paternal form) and the White Plymouth Rock (as the maternal form) were used for this cross.

artificial mutagenesis

Artificial mutagenesis is most often used as a plant breeding method. It is based on the use of physical and chemical mutagens to obtain plant forms with pronounced mutations. Such forms are further used for hybridization or selection.

In plant breeding, it is widely used polyploidy.

Polyploidy- an increase in the number of sets of chromosomes in the cells of the body, a multiple of the haploid (single) number of chromosomes; type of genomic mutation.

The germ cells of most organisms are haploid (contain one set of chromosomes - n), somatic ones are diploid (2n). Organisms whose cells contain more than two sets of chromosomes are called polyploids, three sets are triploids (3n), four are tetraploids (4n), etc. The most common organisms with a multiple of two chromosome sets are tetraploids, hexaploids (6n ) etc.

Polyploids with an odd number of chromosome sets (triploids, pentaploids, etc.) usually do not produce offspring (sterile), since the germ cells they form contain an incomplete set of chromosomes - not a multiple of the haploid one.

the appearance of polyploidy

Polyploidy can occur when chromosomes do not diverge during meiosis. In this case, the germ cell receives a complete (unreduced) set of chromosomes of the somatic cell (2n). When such a gamete merges with a normal one (n), a triploid zygote (3n) is formed, from which a triploid develops. If both gametes carry a diploid pattern, a tetraploid arises. Polyploid cells can arise in the body during incomplete mitosis: after the duplication of chromosomes, cell division may not occur, and two sets of chromosomes appear in it. In plants, tetraploid cells can give rise to tetraploid shoots, the flowers of which will produce diploid gametes instead of haploid ones. With self-pollination, a tetraploid can arise, with pollination with a normal gamete, a triploid. During vegetative propagation of plants, the ploidy of the original organ or tissue is preserved.

Thanks to polyploidy, high-yielding polyploid varieties of sugar beet, cotton, buckwheat, etc. have been developed. Polyploid plants are often more viable and fertile than normal diploids. Their greater resistance to cold is evidenced by an increase in the number of polyploid species at high latitudes and in high mountains.

Since polyploid forms often have valuable economic traits, artificial polyploidization is used in crop production to obtain the initial breeding material.

Experimental polyploid production is closely related to artificial mutagenesis. For this purpose, special mutagens are used (for example, the alkaloid colchicine), which disrupt the separation of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis.

Productive polyploids of rye, buckwheat, sugar beet and other cultivated plants have been obtained; sterile triploids of watermelon, grapes, banana are popular due to their seedless fruits.

The use of distant hybridization in combination with artificial polyploidization allowed domestic scientists to obtain fertile polyploid hybrids of plants (G. D. Karpechenko, a hybrid-tetraploid of radish and cabbage) and animals (B. L. Astaurov, silkworm hybrid tetraploid).

Silkworms Astaurov

Cases of natural polyploidy in animals are very rare. However, Academician BL Astaurov developed a method for the artificial production of polyploids from an interspecific hybrid of silkworms Bombyx mori and B. mandarina. Both of these species have n = 28 chromosomes.

When synthesizing tetraploid, the method of artificial parthenogenesis was used. First, B. mori parthenogenetic polyploids were obtained - 4 n, 6 n. All obtained individuals turned out to be fertile (fertile) females.

Then, parthenogenetic females of B. mori (4n) were crossed with males of another species, B. mandarina (2n). In the offspring from such a crossing, triploid females 2n B. mori + 1 n B. mandarina appeared.

These females, sterile under normal conditions, reproduced by parthenogenesis. At the same time, parthenogenetically, 6n females sometimes appeared (4n B. mori + 2n B. mandarina).

In the offspring from crossing these females with 2n B. mandarina males, 4n forms of both sexes with a doubled set of chromosomes of each species (2n B. mori + 2n B. mandarina) were selected.

If the hybrid 1n B. mori + 1n B. mandarina was sterile, then the tetraploid (4n) turned out to be fertile and, upon breeding, gave fertile offspring. Thus, with the help of polyploidy, it was possible to synthesize a new form of silkworm.

biotechnology

Biotechnology- a science that studies the possibility of modifying biological organisms to meet human needs.

Application of biotechnology (Fig. 3):

production of medicines, fertilizers, biological plant protection products;
biological wastewater treatment;
recovery of valuable metals from sea water;
correction and correction of genetic pathologies.

Rice. 3. Possibilities of biotechnology

For example, the inclusion in the genome of E. coli of the gene responsible for the formation of insulin in humans made it possible to establish industrial production of this hormone (Fig. 4).

Rice. 4. Biotechnology of insulin production

Methods of genetic and cellular engineering are successfully applied in biotechnology.

GENE AND CELL ENGINEERING

Genetic Engineering- artificial, purposeful change in the genotype of microorganisms in order to obtain crops with predetermined properties.

Genetic engineering research extends not only to microorganisms, but also to humans. They are especially relevant in the treatment of diseases associated with disorders in the immune system, in the blood coagulation system, in oncology.

The main method of genetic engineering: the isolation of the necessary genes, their cloning and introduction into a new genetic environment. For example, the introduction of certain genes with the help of a plasmid into the organism of a bacterium for its synthesis of a certain protein (Fig. 5).

Rice. 5. Application of genetic engineering

The main stages of solving a genetic engineering problem are as follows:

Obtaining an isolated gene.
Introduction of a gene into a vector (plasmid) for transfer into the body.
Transfer of a vector with a gene (recombinant plasmid) into a modified organism.
Transformation of body cells.
Selecting genetically modified organisms and eliminating those that have not been successfully modified.

Cell engineering is a direction in science and breeding practice that studies methods of hybridization of somatic cells belonging to different species, the possibility of cloning tissues or whole organisms from individual cells.

Includes cultivation and cloning of cells on specially selected media, cell hybridization, transplantation of cell nuclei and other microsurgical operations for "disassembling" and "assembling" (reconstruction) of viable cells from separate fragments.

At the moment, it has been possible to obtain hybrids between the cells of animals that are distant in their systematic position, for example, a mouse and a chicken. Somatic hybrids are widely used both in scientific research and in biotechnology.

Hybrid cells obtained from human and mouse and human and Chinese hamster cells were used to decipher the human genome.

Hybrids between tumor cells and lymphocytes have the properties of both parental cell lines: they divide indefinitely and can produce certain antibodies. Such antibodies are used for therapeutic and diagnostic purposes in medicine.

In embryology, organisms are used to study the processes of differentiation of cells and tissues during ontogenesis. chimeras, composed of cells with different genotypes. They are created by connecting cells of different embryos at the early stages of their development.

Animal cloning- Another method of cellular engineering: the nucleus of a somatic cell is transplanted into an egg cell devoid of a nucleus, followed by growing the embryo into an adult organism.

The advantage of cell engineering is that it allows you to experiment with cells rather than whole organisms.

Cell engineering techniques are often used in conjunction with genetic engineering.

works of N. I. Vavilov

Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov - Russian geneticist, plant breeder, geographer.

NI Vavilov organized 180 expeditions (20-30 years of the twentieth century) to the most inaccessible and often dangerous regions of the world in order to study the diversity and geographical distribution of cultivated plants.
He collected a unique, the world's largest collection of cultivated plants (by 1940, the collection included 300,000 samples), which are annually multiplied in the collections of the Vavilov All-Russian Institute of Plant Industry (VIR) and are widely used by breeders as a source material for creating new varieties of grain, fruit, vegetable, industrial, medicinal and other crops.
Created the doctrine of plant immunity.
NI Vavilov subdivided plant immunity into structural (mechanical) and chemical. The mechanical immunity of plants is due to the morphological characteristics of the host plant, in particular, the presence of protective devices that prevent the penetration of pathogens into the plant body. Chemical immunity depends on the chemical characteristics of the plant.
The law of homologous series of hereditary variability: genetically close species and genera have genes that give similar traits. Thus, it is possible to predict the presence of traits in other species of a known genus.
He found that the greatest variety of forms of the species is concentrated in those areas where this species originated. N.I. Vavilov singled out 8 centers of origin of cultivated plants.

Centers of origin of cultivated plants

Centers of origin of cultivated plants- geographic areas that are home to the wild ancestors of cultivated plants.

The centers of origin of the most important cultivated plants are associated with the ancient centers of civilization and the place of primary cultivation and selection of plants. Similar foci of domestication (centers domestication) identified in domestic animals.

Eight centers of origin of cultivated plants were identified (Fig. 6):

1. Mediterranean (asparagus, olives, cabbage, onions, clover, poppy seeds, beets, carrots).

2. Western Asia (figs, almonds, grapes, pomegranates, alfalfa, rye, melon, rose).

3. Central Asian (chickpeas, apricots, peas, pears, lentils, flax, garlic, soft wheat).

4. Indo-Malay (citrus, breadfruit, cucumber, mango, black pepper, coconut, banana, eggplant).

5. Chinese (millet, radish, cherry, apple, buckwheat, plum, soy, persimmon).

6. Central American (pumpkin, beans, cocoa, avocado, makhorka, corn, sweet potatoes, cotton).

7. South American (tobacco, pineapple, tomato, potato).

8. Abyssinian center (banana, coffee, sorghum, durum wheat).

In the later works of N.I. Vavilov, the Near East and Central Asian centers are combined into the Southwest Asian center.

Rice. 6. Centers of origin of cultivated plants

Currently, there are 12 primary centers of origin of cultivated plants.

Oleg asks
Elena Titova answers, 12/01/2013

Greetings, Oleg!

Under natural conditions, cases of interspecific crossing are extremely rare.

Do successful crosses jeopardize creationism? Not at all. Against.

What does this mean? That there can be no crosses of "cat with dog" and "up to man" in principle.

God's blessings!

Read more on the topic "Creation":

Centaurs in the plant world. Achievements of Russian, European and American scientists. How the plum and everyone's favorite strawberry appeared.

Creation of new varieties of wheat. The main achievement of Russian scientists is cabbage radish.

Another, no less ancient way of obtaining new varieties of plants and animal breeds is crossing, or, as scientists say, hybridizing different species with each other. Imagine that in the hands of an agronomist there are two plants, each of which has some useful properties. Naturally, the idea of getting one plant that would combine the characteristics of both of them looks very tempting. How to implement this idea? Of course, cross both of these plants. People began to use this technique back in ancient times, at first unconsciously - simply selecting from time to time the natural hybrids that arise in nature, then - purposefully crossing different forms. There are a lot of examples of this. Take at least such a well-known cultivated plant as the plum. Probably few of you know that there is no such type of plants in the wild. Plum is a hybrid that has arisen as a result of natural hybridization of two other species - blackthorn and cherry-plum, and combines the properties of both plants. Wild hybrids of these species can sometimes be found in the Caucasus mountains even now. Common cherry is also the result of interspecific hybridization in nature. It appeared in ancient times from the crossing of sweet cherry with steppe cherry - an unprepossessing shrub not exceeding 1-2 meters in height.

But, as you know, people are very rarely content with only what nature gives them. Very quickly, they learned how to cross various wild plant species themselves, resulting in such hybrids that nature never knew. Here are just a few examples. So, the beloved garden strawberry (it is often incorrectly called strawberry in our country) originated from the hybridization of two wild strawberry species - Chilean and Virginia. And although her ancestors are from America, she was bred in Europe. The American breeder Burbank widely used interspecific hybridization. Perhaps one of his most notable achievements was the creation of a four-species hybrid of a dwarf edible early ripening chestnut that bears fruit as early as the second year after sowing.

A real sensation was the creation of the so-called short-stemmed wheat by the American geneticist N. Borlaug. The researcher accidentally discovered in the US wheat collection extremely low-growing wheat, which has long been grown in India. Having a short stem is a very important quality for a grain crop - otherwise, most of the nutrients are used for stem growth rather than grain formation. And so it turned out: there is a lot of straw, but not very much grain. Borlaug crossed this wheat with another dwarf form - this time the Japanese one (she was able to find as many as three dwarf genes). On the basis of these two forms, the American breeder managed to breed several excellent dwarf and semi-dwarf wheat varieties at once, which are now widely grown in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Only thanks to this achievement of genetics and selection was it possible to raise grain yields by two, and in some places even three times!

Extremely difficult, but successfully completed, was the work of English breeders on the hybridization of the wild-growing diploid blackberry species with the tetraploid cultivated blackberry, which was distinguished by unusually tasty fruits, but extremely late in maturity. At first, the researchers were lucky: a blackberry without thorns was accidentally found. But, despite numerous efforts to cross these two species, only four hybrid seedlings were obtained and, alas, all with thorns. Among other things, three of them were triploid (that is, with triple sets of chromosomes) and, accordingly, did not give seeds. But the last seedling made the scientists happy - it turned out to be a fruitful tetraploid. When they waited for fruiting, sowed and raised new offspring, it was found that 37 plants were without thorns, and 835 had thorns. From the first, one was selected and crossed with a prickly cultivar. In the new offspring, for every three plants with thorns, there was one without thorns. Of the thornless breeders, only one plant was attracted - it became the ancestor of the famous English variety Merton Thorn Loess.

However, obtaining real plant "centaurs" - hybrids between plants belonging not only to different species, but also to different genera is considered to be a true masterpiece of selection. The most famous of these experiments is the work of the Russian breeder G.D. Karpechenko. As a result of a genetic experiment carried out by the researcher, a new plant was born - cabbage radish. Half cabbage, half rare fruits swayed on its shoots. Let's take a closer look at the history of its creation.

Every breeder who has tried to cross different types of plants knows that the hardest part is not getting a new one. hybrid ... but to get him to start giving seeds. After all, if the new variety cannot reproduce, all the work will be in vain - the resulting plant will die sooner or later, leaving no descendants behind. Why are fertile hybrids so rare? To answer this question, we again, once again, have to turn to the mechanism of formation of germ cells - gametes. Recall that each gamete, male and female, arises from a special process of cell division called meiosis. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes in cells decreases, so gametes carry exactly half as many chromosomes as the cells of the parent organism. But at the very beginning of meiosis, another very important event occurs - paired or, as scientists say, homologous chromosomes are tightly pressed against each other and exchange pieces of DNA with each other. And what will happen if the chromosomes "do not recognize" each other and cannot exchange genes? But nothing - normal gametes will not be able to arise.

Now let's imagine hybrid ... arising from the crossing of two different types of plants or animals. Each chromosome of a pair of homologous chromosomes in its cells comes from different organisms. In the case of cabbage and radish, there is one “rare” chromosome for each “cabbage” chromosome - both of these plants carry 9 chromosomes in the germ cells. But cabbage genes have nothing to do with radish genes (these plants generally belong to different biological genera). This means that even if it is possible to obtain a hybrid plant (for example, by "forcible" pollination of cabbage flowers with radish pollen), the chromosomes "do not recognize" each other, and the hybrids will be unable to reproduce.

Is there really no way to get a breeding hybrid? As you know, there are no hopeless situations. After all, no one said that gametes do not form in hybrid plants at all - no, they do appear, but they do not carry a strictly defined number of chromosomes (9, as it should be for cabbage and radish), but a random one, for example, 5 or 8. So, there is a very small chance that a gamete with 18 chromosomes will appear - 9 cabbage and 9 rare chromosomes will end up in one cell. From the mass of crosses of cabbage with radish, which ended in failure, in one case, Karpechenko received a plant that grew and even bloomed, after which a single seed was set. It was that very lucky accident: all 18 chromosomes fell into one gamete.

An unusual gamete accidentally met a gamete, also carrying 18 chromosomes, as a result, a plant with 36 chromosomes grew, that is, the usual single set of 9 chromosomes was repeated 4 times (we already know that such plants are usually called tetraploids). Thus, here we are again faced with the already familiar phenomenon of polyploidy - an increase in the number of chromosomes. The division of cells and the formation of gametes in this hybrid went well - each of the nine rare chromosomes has now found a pair for itself, the same was the case with cabbage chromosomes. Such organisms gave offspring. When the first hybrid plant grew from the seed, its nature manifested itself in the most amazing way: half of the fruits turned out to be cabbage, and the other half was sparse. Cabbage-radish has fully justified its name. But Karpechenko did not stop there. He combined the gamete of the resulting hybrid with a normal rare gamete. Now there were twice as many rare chromosomes as cabbage chromosomes, which was not slow to affect the fruits: two-thirds of each fruit had a rare shape and only one third was cabbage. So, thanks to polyploidy, for the first time they were able to overcome the natural non-breeding of two different genera.

The list of plant "centaurs" is not at all limited to cabbage-rare hybrids. So, as a result of crossing two grain crops - rye and wheat - scientists have received a number of forms, united by the common name of triticale. Triticale has good yields, winter hardiness and is resistant to many wheat diseases. Thanks to hybridization, n shenitsa and the malicious field weed - wheatgrass - the breeders received valuable varieties of plants - wheat-wheatgrass hybrids that are resistant to lodging and have high yields. Another well-known Russian breeder, I.V. Michurin, crossed the Pennsylvanian cherry (very frost-resistant, unlike the cherry we are used to) with bird cherry and synthesized a new plant, which he called cerapadus. Only much later it was discovered that cerapaduses spontaneously arise in the Pamirs, but in a slightly different way.

Purpose: To study the possibilities of carrying out hybridological analysis at the site of peas (Pisum sativum L.).

To carry out hybridological analysis in summer field practice, it is possible to use varieties (lines) of different plant species, but better - those of economic importance, taking into account the climatic conditions of the region. For crossing, genetic collections of cultivated plants are usually used: a genetic collection of mutant intraspecific forms, pure lines, varieties. Pure (homozygous) lines are found in seed peas, corn, tomatoes, wheat, rye, barley, lupine, etc.

The best object for crosses is peas (Pisum sativum L., 2n = 14). The plant is self-pollinating, cross-pollination is rare. Flowers with bracts, bisexual, five-petalled. The flower consists of a sail, two wings and two fused petals - a boat (Fig. 1, 2). The pistil is simple, composed of one carpel. The pistil column is flattened and curved upward almost at right angles, the ovary is superior. The flower has 10 stamens, 9 of them (rarely all 10) grow together in filaments into a tube, and one stamen is free.

The flowering period for peas is up to two weeks, depending on the variety and weather conditions, this period can last from 3 to 40 days. Self-pollination occurs in the bud before the flower opens. Ripe anthers usually crack in the bud, and pollen collects in the upper part of the boat, getting on the stigma as the pistil grows.

The flowers open sequentially from bottom to top, the lower flowers bloom first. Before planting, the peas are carefully prepared. The seeding depth is 5-7 cm, the distance between plants is about 10-12 cm, between rows - about 20 cm.

Crossing technique. It consists of the following operations: preparing the inflorescence for crossing, castration of flowers and pollination.

Progress. The main point of crossing on peas is the castration of the flower - the removal of anthers from the flower of the mother plant before they ripen. Castration is usually carried out in the budding phase (buds are light green in color).

It is advisable to pollinate the castrated flower of the mother plant with freshly collected pollen or use the pollen of a plucked father flower. For pollination, take the pollen of a newly blossoming flower of the father's plant.

A few days after pollination, when the beans begin to form, the isolators are removed. The seeds that ripened in the beans in the year of crossing are already hybrids of the first generation (), one can observe the dominance of one of the traits (in the shape or color of the seeds).

1. Hull the beans from the parent plant, count the number of seeds; make sure all seeds are yellow.

2. Hull the beans from the plant of the paternal variety, count the number of seeds; make sure all seeds are green.

3. Hull the beans of three plants with first generation seeds (); make sure all seeds are yellow and count the number of seeds obtained. Determine which color (yellow or green) is dominant and which is recessive.

4. Hull the beans of 10 pea plants with second generation seeds (), count the number of yellow and green seeds, calculate the ratio between them. Then calculate the theoretically expected ratio of yellow to green seeds. It is better to write the data into a table (Table 1).

Table 1

Hybridological analysis for monohybrid crossing of peas

Analyzed plants	Seeds received	Split
Parent varieties and hybrids		Including	Theoretically expected	Actually received

Inexhaustible 195
> Moskovsky 559


(general analysis data obtained by the entire group of students)

All data on the analysis of cleavage in hybrids and obtained by all students are entered in the table. It should be borne in mind that the more seeds obtained, the better the actual splitting data is in agreement with the theoretically expected splitting.

Hybridological analysis in peas with dihybrid crossing

A dihybrid crossing is a crossing in which the parental forms differ from one another in two pairs of studied alternative traits. In hybrids, the inheritance of only two pairs of traits or two pairs of genes that determine their development is analyzed.

For hybridological analysis, when carrying out a dihybrid crossing, the pea varieties already recommended for monohybrid crossing were taken: "Moskovsky 558", which has smooth green seeds and "Inexhaustible 195" with wrinkled yellow seeds. ... The seeds of the first generation hybrids were smooth and yellow.

When analyzing the nature of splitting by color and shape of seeds in peas, the following tasks were performed:

Hull seeds from 5 or more Inexhaustible 195 mother plants, count the number of seeds and make sure they are all yellow and wrinkled;

Hull the seeds of 5 or more paternal plants of the Moscow 559 variety, they must be all smooth and green;

Hull the seeds of the hybrids; they should all be yellow and smooth. Determine which features are dominant, which are recessive;

Hull the seeds and distribute them into four phenotypic classes according to the combination of color traits and seed shape: smooth yellow, wrinkled yellow, smooth green and wrinkled green;

To determine the nature of inheritance of each pair of traits (alleles) in a dihybrid, it is necessary to calculate the splitting for each of them separately: into yellow-green and smooth-wrinkled, it should be 3: 1. As follows from table 4, the ratio of yellow to green seeds is 1075: 365, or 2.94: 1, close to 3: 1. This means that the traits of color and shape of seeds in peas are inherited independently.

Table 4

Hybrid seeds in color and shape form 4 phenotypic classes in the following quantitative ratios: about all the seeds obtained will be smooth yellow (A-B-), - yellow wrinkled (A- cv), - green smooth (aa B-) and - green wrinkled (aa cc), or close to the ratio of 9: 3: 3: 1.

Crossing technique for cereals (wheat and rye)

Wheat (Triticum L.) is a genus of herbaceous proterological plants. In culture, cultivated mainly varieties of soft (6p = 42) and hard (4p = 28) wheat.

Wheat inflorescence is a complex ear, consisting of the same 3-7 flower spikelets, sitting in the grooves of the spikelet. The wheat flower has 3 stamens and a two-lobed stigma. Crossbreeding begins with the castration of the flower of the female plants.

When pollinated, cracked anthers are placed in castrated mother flowers, or pollen is applied directly to the stigma with tweezers, a brush or a flat thin stick. Pollen application is more reliable

The technique of crossing the apple tree

The apple tree (Malus Mill) is a genus of plants in the Rosaceae family. The genus includes 36 species. The most widespread apple tree is domestic or cultivated. Most of the varieties are diploid (2n = 34), about a quarter of the varieties are triploid (3n = 51), and some varieties are tetraploid (4n = 68).

The structure of the flower. The flowers of the apple tree are collected in umbellate inflorescences (Fig. 6). The flower is large, white, pink outside. There are many stamens. Pistil with five columns fused at the base. Anthers are yellow. The calyx is five-part. The ovary is inferior, five-celled; each nest contains 4-6 ovules. The apple tree blooms from April to June, depending on the zone. The stigma matures earlier than the anthers, which guarantees cross-pollination by bees and bumblebees. Duration of flowering is 8-12 days.

Pollination technique. 2-3 buds are left on the flower, the rest are removed. Leave buds that have reached their final size, the petals of which have not yet begun to move apart. Carefully push the petals apart with tweezers, grab the upper part of the filament with the anther and remove. It is better to remove the anther one at a time so as not to damage the stigma of the pistil. Put on a general insulator on the castrated buds.

Pollen for pollination can be prepared on the day of castration. Collect the buds of the parent plant that have just begun to bloom in a paper bag. In an apple tree, pollen from one bud is enough to pollinate 5-10 flowers.

Evaluation of plant fertility by pollen grains

In higher flowering plants, the gametophyte is reduced and reduced to the formation of an embryo sac (macrosporogenesis) and pollen germination (microsporogenesis). Microspore formation occurs in microsporangia. Mature microspores in seed plants are called pollen, this is a collection of pollen grains - dust particles that serve for sexual reproduction. Analysis of microsporogenesis, as well as the morphology of mature pollen grains, makes it possible to assess the level of plant fertility. This is especially important when the genetic control of fertility is studied, in the detection of CMS in plants, hybridization and polyploidy.

Disturbances in the morphology of pollen, a sharp decrease in its amount in the anthers and impaired germination can be the result of various genetic causes.

There are special methods for analyzing plant fertility by germinating pollen grains. In nature, pollen, falling on the stigma of the pistil, germinates, forming a pollen tube. Pollen germinates under the influence of special substances containing sugars, which are secreted by the cells of the mature stigma.

Pollen germination in some plants at C is observed after 15-20 minutes. The pollen tubes do not develop simultaneously; in some dust particles the tube is shorter, in others it is longer.

Sprouted pollen grains on the coverslip can be stained with aceto-orsein and one or two (depending on the tube length) nuclei (sperm) can be seen in the tubes.

In addition to pollen germination, abnormal cells can be detected by morphological analysis using stains. For example, pollen containing starch is stained with iodine: take the anther of any plant with fully ripe pollen grains and put it on a glass slide. With the help of a dissecting needle, the anther is ruptured and the pollen grains are distributed over the glass surface. A drop of 0.5% alcohol solution of iodine is applied to the glass, which reveals the presence of starch by the specific blue color of pollen grains. They can be stained with acetorcein and studied grains with an abnormal shape, weakly colored, “unfulfilled”, that is, the proportion of abortive cells.

Task 1. Using the pollen of various plant species, the students analyzed the variability of its morphology in a drop of water without coloring (in vivo), applying coloring with iodine, acetocarmine.

Task 2. During the flowering period of rye and other cultivated plants and the final maturation of pollen in forms with different genotypes (diploids, polyploids, aneuploids), in forms growing in different environmental conditions (pay attention to the weather conditions under which meiosis or processes completion of pollen morphogenesis), determine the frequency of occurrence of abnormal mature pollen grains. Classify abnormal cells: sharp deviations in size, disruption of shape, violation of the cytoplasm (its compression and detachment from the membrane, etc.). Abortive pollen grains often have one nucleus. To analyze the frequency of abortive pollen, stain with acetorcein or acetocarmine.

Man, in his striving to improve nature, moves further and further. Thanks to modern advances in genetics, farmers are getting more and more unusual and interesting hybrids that can satisfy the most daring desires of consumers.
In addition, globalization leads to the spread of plant species uncharacteristic for a given climatic zone. Pineapples and bananas have long since come out of the exotic, hybrid nectarines and miniols, etc. have become commonplace.

Yellow watermelon (38 kcal, vitamins A, C)

On the outside, it is a familiar striped watermelon, but bright yellow on the inside. Another feature is the very small number of seeds. This watermelon is the result of crossing a wild (yellow inside, but completely tasteless) with a cultured watermelon. The result is juicy and tender, but less sweet than the red.
They are grown in Spain (rounded varieties) and Thailand (oval). There is a variety "Lunny" bred by the breeder Sokolov from Astrakhan. This variety has very sweet tastes with some exotic notes, similar to those of mango or lemon or pumpkin.
There is also a Ukrainian hybrid based on watermelon ("kavuna") and pumpkin ("garbuza") - "kavbuz". It looks more like a pumpkin with a watermelon flavor and is ideal for making cereals.

Purple potatoes (72 kcal, vitamin C, B vitamins, potassium, iron, magnesium and zinc)

Potatoes with pink, yellow or purple peels are no longer surprising. But scientists from Colorado State University managed to get potatoes with purple colors inside. The basis of the variety is the Andean highland potatoes, and the color is caused by the high content of anthocyanins. These substances are the strongest antioxidants, the properties of which are preserved even after cooking.
The variety was named "Violet Majesty", it is already being actively sold in England and starting in Scotland, the climate of which is most suitable for the variety. The popularization of the variety was promoted by the English chef Jamie Oliver. This purple potato with the usual taste looks great in the form of mashed potatoes, indescribable rich color, baked, and of course fries.

Romanesco cabbage (25 kcal, carotene, vitamin C, mineral salts, zinc)

The unearthly sight of this close relative of broccoli and cauliflower perfectly illustrates the concept of a "fractal". Its pale green inflorescences have a conical shape and are arranged in a spiral on the head of cabbage. Originally from Italy, this cabbage has been on the market for about 10 years, and Dutch breeders contributed to its popularization, slightly improving the vegetable, known to Italian housewives since the 16th century.

In Romanesco, there is little fiber and a lot of nutrients, due to this, it is easily absorbed. Interestingly, when cooking this cabbage, there is no characteristic cabbage smell, which children do not like so much. In addition, the exotic kind of space vegetable makes you want to taste it. Romanesco is prepared like ordinary broccoli - boiled, stewed, added to pasta and salads.

Pluot (57 kcal, fiber, vitamin C)

From the crossing of such plant species as plum and apricot, two hybrids are obtained, the pluot, which looks more like a plum, and the aprium, which is more reminiscent of an apricot. Both hybrids are named after the first syllables of the English names of the parent species.
Externally, the fruits of the pluot are colored pink, green, burgundy or purple, the inside is from white to rich plum. These hybrids were bred in the Dave Wilson Nursery in 1989. Now in the world there are already two varieties of aprium, eleven varieties of pluot, one nectaplama (a hybrid of nectarine and plum), one pichplama (a hybrid of peach and plum).
Plots are used for making juice, desserts, homemade products and wine. This fruit tastes much sweeter than both plums and apricots.

Watermelon radish (20 kcal, folic acid, vitamin C)

Watermelon radish fully lives up to its name - it is bright raspberry on the inside and covered with white-green skin on the outside, just like a watermelon. In shape and size, too (diameter 7-8 cm), it resembles a medium-sized radish or turnip. It tastes quite ordinary - bitter at the skin and sweetish in the middle. True, it is harder, not as juicy and crunchy as usual.
It looks great in a salad, simply sliced with sesame seeds or salt. It is also recommended to make mashed potatoes from it, bake, add to vegetables for frying.

Yoshta (40 kcal, antioxidant anthocyanins, vitamins C, P)

Crossbreeding of such plant species as currant (johannisbeere) and gooseberry (stachelbeere) gave a yoshtu berry with fruits close to black, the size of cherries, sweet and sour slightly astringent taste, pleasantly giving off currants.
Michurin also dreamed of creating a currant the size of a gooseberry, but not prickly. He managed to bring out the black Moor gooseberry of deep purple color. By 1939, in Berlin, Paul Lorenz was also breeding similar hybrids. Due to the war, these works were stopped. It was only in 1970 that Rudolf Bauer managed to get the perfect plant. There are now two varieties of yoshta: Black (maroon) and Red (dull red).
During the season, 7-10 kg of berries are obtained from the yoshta bush. They are used in homemade preparations, desserts, for flavoring soda. Yoshta helps well with gastrointestinal diseases, to remove heavy metals and radioactive substances from the body, and to improve blood circulation.

Broccolini (43 kcal, calcium, vitamins A, C, iron, fiber, folic acid)

In the cabbage family, a cross between common broccoli and Chinese broccoli (guilan) has produced a new cabbage-like asparagus on top with a broccoli head.
Broccolini is a little sweet, does not have a harsh cabbage spirit, with a peppery note, delicate taste, reminiscent of asparagus and broccoli at the same time. It contains many useful substances and at the same time is low in calories.
In the USA, Brazil, Asia, Spain, broccolini is commonly used as a side dish. It is served fresh, drizzled with butter, or lightly fried in oil.

Nashi (46 kcal, antioxidants, phosphorus, calcium, fiber)

Another result of crossing plants is neshi. We got it from apples and pears in Asia several centuries ago. There it is called Asian, water, sand or Japanese pear. The fruit looks like a round apple and tastes like a juicy, crispy pear. Nesha's color ranges from pale green to orange. Unlike ordinary pears, neshi is harder, therefore it is better stored and transported.
Nashi is quite juicy, so it is best used in salads or solo. It is also good as an appetizer for wine along with cheese and grapes. About 10 popular commercial varieties are now grown in Australia, USA, New Zealand, France, Chile and Cyprus.

Yuzu (30 kcal, vitamin C)

Yuzu (Japanese lemon) is a hybrid of mandarin and ornamental citrus (Ichang papeda). The fruit is the size of a tangerine, green or yellow with a bumpy skin, has a sour taste and a bright aroma. It has been used by the Japanese since the 7th century, when Buddhist monks brought this fruit from the mainland to the islands. Yuzu is popular in Chinese and Korean cuisine.
It has a completely unusual aroma - citrus, with floral nuances and notes of pine needles. Most often used for flavoring, the zest is used as a seasoning. This seasoning is added to meat and fish dishes, miso soup, noodles. Jams, alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks, desserts, syrups are also prepared with the zest. The juice is similar to lemon juice (sour and aromatic, but softer) and is the basis of ponzu sauce, it is also used as vinegar.
It also has a cult significance in Japan. On December 22, on the holiday of the winter solstice, it is customary to take baths with these fruits, which symbolize the sun. Its aroma drives away evil forces, protects against colds. Animals are dipped into the same bath, and then the plants are watered.

Yellow beet (50 kcal, folic acid, potassium, vitamin A, fiber)

This beet differs only from the usual one only in color and in that it does not get your hands dirty when cooking. It tastes just as sweet, aromatic, good baked and even in chips. Yellow beet leaves can be used fresh for salads.