Introduction

The Russian language, like any modern language with a long cultural tradition, provides speakers with rich expressive possibilities, including stylistic ones. However, mastering these language resources requires knowledge, developed linguostylistic sense and skills in using language units.

Stylistic means of language and methods of their use are formed gradually, representing a historically changing phenomenon. Accordingly, therefore, they have continued to be studied by researchers, scientists, writers and cultural figures since ancient times.

Among the figures of speech since antiquity, there have been tropes (the use of words in a figurative sense) and figures in the narrow sense of the word (techniques of combining words) - although the problem of a clear definition and differentiation of both has always remained open.

Stylistic figures have been known in linguistics since ancient times as the most important ways to increase the expressiveness of speech, and for many centuries such great researchers as Aristotle, Cicero, M.V. have turned to their analysis and classification. Lomonosov, D.E. Rosenthal et al.

The relevance of the problem of researching the presented topic is due to the need to study the use of stylistic figures in the Russian language, since they are indicators of the richness of speech.

The object of this study is stylistic figures.

The subject is stylistic figures as a means of richness of speech.

The purpose of this work is to give a comprehensive description of the system of stylistic figures that are actively used by poets and writers, as well as to identify the features of their functioning in everyday communication of the Russian-speaking population. To achieve our goals, we need to complete the following tasks:

study the functioning of stylistic figures in the Russian language.

to explore their formation, structure and ability to master and enrich speech with the help of stylistic means of expression, as well as to identify the specifics of their functioning in the poetic texts of Russian poets.

Research methods: analysis, classification, generalization.

Work structure

The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The work also uses the works of famous philologists and linguists in the field of studying the modern Russian literary language.

Stylistic means of expression

Figure of speech concept

Stylistics is a branch of linguistics devoted to the study of the expressive means of language, thereby occupying a special place among other disciplines of linguistics. Stylistics studies the use of units and categories of language to convey thoughts. She explores the problems of “language use,” which is the subject of her attention. This is its meaning and essence as an independent science among other branches of linguistics.

Stylistic figures are special phrases that go beyond practically necessary norms and enhance the expressiveness of the text. Since figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax.

One of the richest means of expressive speech is the means of verbal figurativeness, primarily stylistic figures of speech - figurative figures of speech that serve to convey words and expressions in a figurative meaning, giving them expressiveness, imagery, and emotional overtones. Figures of speech are used to convey mood or enhance the effect of a phrase. At the same time, they are used in works of art, having a place both in lyrics and in prose.

Ancient rhetoricians viewed rhetorical figures as certain deviations of speech from the natural norm, “ordinary and simple form,” a kind of artificial decoration. The modern view, on the contrary, assumes rather that figures play an important role in human speech.

The modern Russian language consists of 5 styles: colloquial, scientific, official business, journalistic and fiction style.

Each functional style is a complex system that includes all levels of language: morphological means, syntactic structures, pronunciation of words, lexical and phraseological structure of speech.

Each of these styles has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other styles, for example, the official business style is characterized by standardization, the inclusion of abbreviations and acronyms in the text, while the scientific style is characterized by a richness in terminology.

Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). The main source of increased expressiveness is the lexical composition, which gives whole line stylistic means.

Unlike colloquial, all book styles are used primarily in written form, which mainly unites them. Book styles are characterized by strict adherence to norms at all linguistic levels.

Conversational style, on the other hand, is more distinctive and can be strong evidence that the colloquial stylistic norm is fundamentally different from the literary one.

At the same time, in the style of fiction, linguistic means are used that, along with logical meaning, also have an expressive-emotional connotation. Since the birth of literature, there have been a variety of classifications and definitions of various stylistic figures, and their number in the works of some researchers exceeded a hundred.

The lexical system of a language is complex and multifaceted. Therefore, a complete typology of lexical means has not been developed, since it would have to recreate the entire diverse range of human feelings. However, there are three main groups into which expressive means can be classified: phonetic, lexical and syntactic. Lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, tropes are used by authors of works of art when describing nature and the appearance of heroes.

Trope (from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of phrase) is a figurative device that consists of using a word or expression in a figurative sense. The trope is based in many ways on the same semantic mechanisms that form the figurative meaning of the word. In addition, the purpose of the trope is not only to create a new meaning, but to decorate, enrich speech, and make it more expressive. Tropes include simile, metaphor, hyperbole, personification, epithet, and periphrasis.

A figure of speech is a special syntactic structure that serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Figures of speech include antithesis, gradation, oxymoron, rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical appeal, lexical repetition, syntactic parallelism and ellipsis.

Expressiveness of speech refers to those features of its structure that support the attention and interest of the listener (reader). Linguistics has not developed a complete typology of expressiveness, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades.

The main source of increased expressiveness is vocabulary, which provides a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymies, synecdoche, hyperbole, litotes, personification, periphrases, allegory, irony. Syntactic means, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have significant opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech: antithesis, anaphora, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), oxymoron, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, epiphora, silence, ellipsis. In addition, the design of a statement as narrative, interrogative or incentive, in accordance with the tasks of communication in a specific situation, has a certain stylistic and expressive meaning.

D.E. Rosenthal argued: “First of all, when characterizing linguistic means, it is important to remember the opposition between book and colloquial speech. It is practically permissible to talk about book-written styles (scientific, professional-technical, official-business, social-journalistic) and oral-conversational styles (literary-colloquial, everyday-everyday, colloquial), taking into account that bookish speech can take the form both written and oral, that colloquial speech is connected not only with the oral form, but also with the written form, etc., as for the styles of fiction, then, due to the uniqueness of the linguistic means used in it, one should approach their stylistic characteristics differentiated. For practical stylistics, what is important is not whether there is a special artistic-fictional style, but that it uses elements from books, colloquial, and extra-literary (colloquial, dialect, etc.)”

Classification of stylistic means

Stylistically, the figures are diverse and often arbitrary, because the figures are divided on the basis of ratings - as “delightful to the ear”, “captivating the senses”, etc.

There are three fundamental groups into which expressive means can be classified: phonetic, lexical and syntactic.

Phonetic means:

Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds. It is a technique for highlighting and joining words in a line. Increases the euphony of the verse.

We can grow to be a hundred years old without getting old.

Our vigor grows year by year.

Praise, hammer and verse, the land of youth. (V.V. Mayakovsky. Good!)

Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds.

Our ears are on top!

A little morning the guns lit up

And the forests have blue tops -

The French are right there. (M. Yu. Lermontov)

Lexical means:

Antonyms are words that belong to the same part of speech, but have opposite meanings. The contrast of antonyms in speech is a clear source of speech expression, establishing the emotionality of speech: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.

Hyperbole is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon, properties to dimensions unusual for the object. Used to enhance the artistic impression: I’ve already said it a hundred times. Haven't seen each other for a hundred years.

Litotes is an artistic understatement, a weakening of the properties of a characteristic to dimensions that do not exist in reality. Used to enhance the artistic impression: A boy the size of a finger, two steps away.

Individual author's neologisms - due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects and express the author's view on a topic or problem. The use of literary images helps the author to better explain a situation, phenomenon, or another image.

Metaphor is a hidden comparison, which is based on the comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature, the similarity between distant objects and phenomena. In artistic speech, the author uses metaphors to enhance the expressiveness of speech to create a picture and convey the inner world of the characters. The author describes the image of the hero using a metaphor, and the reader has to understand and grasp the semantic connection on which the similarity between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based.

Poets and writers often create interesting, deep images with the help of metaphors. The most beautiful and multifaceted images become when the metaphor unfolds, when an entire fragment of text is built on continuous figurative meanings. Sometimes, with the help of an extended metaphor, not only a sentence is constructed, but also a significant part of the text or even the entire text. For example, the poem below by M.A. Kuzmin is entirely built on metaphor:

With a dry hand he points to the flask,

I'll have a drink and lie down on the bed,

She will sit right next to you

And he will sing,

And it will surround

The rustling of a graying outfit.

My friends and I are now divorced,

And I don't live in freedom.

I don't know how to leave the circle:

Drives everyone away

In the dead of night

My jealous friend.

I lie, I lie... my soul becomes empty.

The hand in the hand will become numb.

The melancholy itself is unlikely to go away...

And day after day

We live, we live,

Like prisoners in a blind basement.

At the same time, it should be remembered that not every metaphor is capable of constructing an image. There are many so-called worn-out metaphors in the language that are not used as a figurative device. Their task is to simply name an object, phenomenon or action, for example: horse meaning “sports equipment”, dog meaning “trigger in a hunting rifle”, peephole meaning “small round hole in something (usually for supervision, observation )", mouse in the meaning of "a device for controlling the cursor on a computer monitor", the clock runs in the meaning of "working".

Metonymy is the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them, on the basis of contiguity:

Between the object and the material from which it is made: The crystal is already on the table.

Between content and content: Eat another plate. I've already drunk two cups

Between an action and its result, place or object: I got five for the dictation.

Between the action and the instrument of this action: The trumpet called for a campaign.

Between a social event and its participants: The Congress decided.

Between a place and the people in that place: The audience listened attentively.

Between the condition and its cause: My joy is still at school.

Synecdoche is a lexical device by which the whole is expressed through its part (something smaller included in something larger). Is a type of metonymy: My feet will not be here

Personification is a lexical term that consists in transferring a sign of a living thing to a non-living one. When personified, the depicted object is externally likened to a person. Also, actions that are permissible only to humans are attributed to inanimate objects.

Evaluative vocabulary is the use of the author's direct assessment of events, phenomena, objects.

Periphrasis - the use of a description instead of a proper name or title; descriptive expression, figure of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition.

Proverbs and sayings are special stable lexical constructions that add imagery, accuracy, and expressiveness to speech.

Comparison is a lexical means that consists in comparing objects or phenomena. Comparison helps the author to evaluate, express his point of view, create entire artistic pictures, and give a description of objects by comparing one object with another. Comparison is usually added by conjunctions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc., but serves to figuratively describe various characteristics of objects, the nature of actions and deeds.

Comparison can be expressed in various ways. The most common are the following:

1. Sentences with comparative conjunctions as, as if, as if, as if, exactly; these conjunctions are used both as part of comparative phrases and in complex sentences with a comparative clause, for example:

And life already torments us, like a smooth path without a goal, like a feast at someone else’s holiday (M. Lermontov); The fragile ice lies on the icy river, like melting sugar (N. Nekrasov) (comparative phrases);

2. Comparative or superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs: My light, mirror! Tell me and report the whole truth: Am I the sweetest in the world, the most ruddy and whitest of all? (A. Pushkin)

3. Instrumental case with the meaning of comparison: to crow like a rooster (= like a rooster), to sing like a nightingale (= like a nightingale), The soul is sad - even a howl of a wolf (= howl like a wolf).

Phraseologisms are stable figures of speech used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and figurative characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality: a black crow. Makes speech more vivid, figurative, and expressive phraseological units: to kick the bucket (do nothing).

An epithet is an artistic definition that highlights any of its properties, qualities or characteristics in an object or phenomenon. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition of another:

1) noun;

2) adjective;

3) adverb and participle: eagerly peers; listens frozen.

Reminiscence - features in a work of art that evoke memories of another work.

Syntactic means:

Of the total mass of stylistic figures, there are 13 main ones:

inversion

gradation

antithesis

oxymoron

parallelism

default

ellipsis

a rhetorical question

rhetorical appeal (exclamation)

asyndeton

multi-union

Anaphora (uniformity) is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. Used to enhance the expressed thought, image, phenomenon: How to talk about the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings overwhelming the soul at this moment?

Epiphora is the same ending of several sentences, enhancing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.

Syntactic parallelism is the identical construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author strives to highlight and emphasize the idea expressed.

Antithesis is a phrase that consists of a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, and contrast phenomena. Serves as a way to express the author’s view of the described phenomena, images, etc.

Lays down softly, but sleeps hard;

The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;

And we hate and we love by chance,

Without sacrificing anything, neither anger nor love (M. Lermontov)

An auxiliary means of creating an antithesis is syntactic parallelism, since the identical or similar construction of constructions sets off words with opposite meanings. Antithesis can also be built on speech antonyms, for example:

They got along.

Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other (A. Pushkin)

Sometimes the antithesis can be expressed by stylistic synonyms. In these cases, semantic and stylistic differences between synonyms come to the fore, for example:

She had not eyes, but eyes;

He's not sleeping, he's actually sleeping!

Oxymoron (Greek Oxymoron - witty-stupid) is a bright stylistic device for the formation of speech, consisting in the creation of a new concept by combining words that are contrasting in purpose in order to highlight their logically incompatible meanings and create a complex and vivid image, for example: cheerful sadness; smart fool; black white.. This figure, like an antithesis, is a “meeting place” of antonyms. The combination of antonyms in “pure form” in an oxymoron is rare (The beginning of the end is the title), “A bad good person” is the title. Film.

In most cases, words that have the opposite meaning are combined as determiners and qualifiers [“Large little things”, “Expensive cheapness” - headings] (adjective - noun), therefore they cannot be considered one hundred percent antonyms, since the latter must belong to the same part of speech. Vivid oxymorons were created by Russian poets: I love nature’s lush withering. (A.S. Pushkin);

And now the wordless one comes in,

Self-confident and embarrassed

Desired, always lovely

And maybe a little in love... (I. Severyanin).

An oxymoron is often found in the titles of works of fiction: the novel “Hot Snow” by Yu. Bondarev. This figure is also used in a journalistic style (often in headlines to attract attention): “Cold weather - hot season” “Retreat forward”

Gradation is a stylistic figure that involves the subsequent intensification or, conversely, weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech. In addition, the emotional and expressive emphasis of words is enhanced when these words are repeated in one or more adjacent sentences. The repetition of the same word in a complex sentence is often carried out for logical reasons - to clarify the thought being expressed or to establish a more distinct semantic connection between the members of the sentence. For example: (And I understood this too, but I realized that I was drowning..."; "And on the canvas it is no longer a specific Uncle Vanya, but a serviceable man, living freely and cheerfully in his land. Living a healthy and strong life, that life, about which an intellectual, shedding snot, dreams...”

But very often in artistic speech a word or several words are repeated not only in a complex, but even in one simple sentence. They are repeated in order to evoke emotional and expressive utterance. This syntactic technique is called verbal repetition.

Verbal repetition gains particular expressiveness when the same word appears at the beginning of two or more adjacent phrases. This syntactic device is called anaphora, or unity of beginning. For example: “At least there’s something on the horizon. At least an asterisk. If only a policeman's whistle had sounded. Nothing"

The stringing of synonyms often gives rise to gradation, when each subsequent synonym strengthens (weaken) the meaning of the previous one. For example: “This is no longer just Semirayev, but something great, powerful, formidable...”

Inversion is the reverse order of words in a sentence. In direct word order, the subject usually comes before the predicate, an agreed definition - before the word being defined, an inconsistent one - after it, an object after the control word, an adverbial modifier - before the verb. And when using inversion, words have a different sequence that does not correspond to grammatical rules. In addition, it is a fairly strong means of expression, usually used in emotional, excited speech.

Ellipsis (Greek Elleipsis - lack, omission) is a syntactic means of expressiveness that consists in omitting one of the main members of a sentence or even both. Refers to destructive figures, that is, it destroys syntactic connections. This figure suggests the “disappearance” of entire fragments of statements, while it is believed that the fragments can be restored according to the meaning of the whole. The usual norm for word omissions is one or two words, but in principle, larger syntactic blocks can remain outside the sentence (especially if the ellipsis is accompanied by parallelism).

It should be noted that the construction itself requires the closest possible context, otherwise the reader may understand it inadequately or not understand it at all. Consequently, ellipsis is a means of expressiveness that consists in omitting a certain implied member of the sentence: We sat in ashes, hail in dust, sickles and plows in swords. (Zhukovsky)

The use of this figure gives the statement dynamism, the intonation of lively speech, and increases artistic expressiveness. Most often, the predicate is missed to create an ellipse: The world is for people. In writing, this figure is reproduced using a dash (-). As a stylistic device, ellipsis became widespread in slogans.

Silence is a syntactic device consisting in the author’s conscious use of an incompletely expressed thought, leaving the reader to complete it himself. In writing, silence is expressed by an ellipsis (...), behind which lies an “unexpected” pause, reflecting the speaker’s excitement. As a stylistic device, silence is often used in a conversational style: This fable could be explained more -

Yes, so as not to irritate the geese... (I.A. Krylov “Geese”)

Rhetorical appeal (rhetorical exclamation) is a specific appeal to someone (something). Rhetorical appeal serves not only to name the addressee of the speech, but also to express the attitude towards the object, to characterize it: Flowers, love, village, idleness , field! I am devoted to you with my soul. (Pushkin)

Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations are a figurative device that consists of creating an expression of the author’s position, expressing a statement in the form of a question: “But didn’t I have the right to express my attitude? And I expressed it."

D. E. Rosenthal puts it this way: “... interrogative-rhetorical sentences do not require an answer and are used as a means of expressiveness.” . For example: “Why is life so short? Once you train yourself for her, you need to leave...”

Polyunion is a rhetorical figure consisting of the deliberate repetition of coordinating conjunctions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the listed concepts.

Non-union is a stylistic figure consisting of the deliberate omission of connecting conjunctions between members of a sentence or between sentences: the absence of conjunctions gives the expression speed, richness of impressions within the overall picture: Swede, Russian - stabs, chops, cuts, drumming, clicks, grinding, thunder of guns , stomping, neighing, groaning... (A.S. Pushkin.)

These visual and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, helping him to gain an individual style.

Lexical stylistic means of modern English represent a variety of expressive means of language and stylistic devices, which are based on the use of semantic, stylistic and other features of a single word or phraseological unit.

Observations on the linguistic nature and functions of these expressive means of language and stylistic devices allow us to divide them into several groups.

1. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of dictionary and contextual subject-logical meanings

Words in context can acquire additional meanings determined by the context that have not yet been tested in public use. These contextual meanings can sometimes deviate so far from the subject-logical meaning of a word used out of context that they sometimes represent the opposite of the subject-logical meaning. The so-called figurative meanings deviate especially far from the subject-logical meaning of words.

The relationship between subject-logical and contextual meanings is one of the means of creating a figurative representation of life phenomena. They can be divided into the following types:

• 1) Relationships based on similarity of characteristics (metaphor),
• 2) Relationships based on the contiguity of concepts (metonymy).
• 3) Relationships based on the direct and reverse meaning of the word (irony).

Metaphor

Metaphor - the relationship between subject-logical meaning and contextual meaning, based on the similarity of the characteristics of two concepts, is called metaphor. Metaphor (from ancient Greek ???????? - “transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a figure of speech that uses the name of an object of one class to describe an object of another class. The term belongs to Aristotle and is associated with his understanding of art as an imitation of life.

My body is the frame wherein "tis (thy portrait) held

This line is from Shakespeare's sonnet, in which the word frame implements the relationship of two meanings - the subject-logical frame (a specific image) and the contextual - that which frames, a place for storage. In context, it is possible to compare such concepts as “My body is like a vessel in which your image is stored” and “frame”, in which a portrait is usually enclosed. Metaphor is expressed by a noun in the syntactic function of a predicate.

As you know, metaphor is one of the ways to form new meanings of words and new words. There is no new meaning yet, but the use has become familiar and is beginning to become normal. A “language” metaphor appears, as opposed to a “speech” metaphor.

Speech metaphor is usually the result of the search for an accurate, adequate artistic expression of thought. A speech metaphor always gives some evaluative moment to the utterance. It is interesting to cite the following thought of Academician. Vinogradov regarding the role of metaphor in the work of writers. “... a metaphor, if it is not cliched,” writes V.V. Vinogradov, “is an act of affirmation of an individual worldview, an act of subjective isolation. In the metaphor, a strictly defined, individual subject with his individual tendencies of worldview appears sharply. Therefore, a verbal metaphor is narrow, subjectively closed and intrusively “ideological,” that is, it too imposes on the reader the subjective author’s view of the subject and its semantic connections.”

It is also customary to distinguish between so-called worn-out metaphors such as the branch of a bank and others given above. However, as was indicated, this kind of phenomenon is not the property of stylistics, but belongs to the field of lexicology, which deals with the ways of change and development of word meanings. In these examples, there is essentially no interaction between the two types of meanings. There is no implementation of two meanings in the context.

There are 4 “elements” in a metaphor:

• · category or context,
• an object within a specific category,
• · the process by which this object performs a function,
• · application of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.

Types of metaphor

Since antiquity, there have been descriptions of some traditional types of metaphor:

• · A sharp metaphor is a metaphor that brings together concepts that are far apart from each other. Model: filling the statement.
• · An erased metaphor is a generally accepted metaphor, the figurative character of which is no longer felt. Model: chair leg.
• · A formula metaphor is close to an erased metaphor, but differs from it by even greater stereotyping and sometimes the impossibility of transformation into a non-figurative construction. Model: worm of doubt.
• · An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented throughout a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: Book hunger does not go away: products from the book market increasingly turn out to be stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying.
• · Realized metaphor involves operating with a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the implementation of a metaphor is often comic. Model: I lost my temper and got on the bus.

Theories of metaphor

Among other lexical means, metaphor occupies a central place, as it allows you to create a capacious image based on vivid, unexpected associations. Metaphorization can be based on the similarity of a wide variety of features of objects: color, shape, volume, purpose, position, etc.

According to the classification proposed by N.D. Arutyunova, metaphors are divided into:

• · nominative, consisting of replacing one descriptive meaning with another and serving as a source of homonymy;
• · figurative metaphors that serve the development of figurative meanings and synonymous means of language;
• · cognitive metaphors that arise as a result of a shift in the compatibility of predicate words (transfer of meaning) and create polysemy;
• · generalizing metaphors (as the final result of a cognitive metaphor), erasing the boundaries between logical orders in the lexical meaning of a word and stimulating the emergence of logical polysemy.

However, there are other views on the classification of metaphors. For example, J. Lakoff and M. Johnson identify two types of metaphors considered in relation to time and space:

• · ontological, that is, metaphors that allow you to see events, actions, emotions, ideas, etc. as a certain substance (the mind is an entity, the mind is a fragile thing),
• · oriented, or orientational, that is, metaphors that do not define one concept in terms of another, but organize the entire system of concepts in relation to each other (happy is up, sad is down; conscious is up, unconscious is down).

George Lakoff in his work “The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor” talks about the ways of creating metaphor and the composition of this means of artistic expression. A metaphor, according to Lakoff, is a prose or poetic expression where a word (or several words) that is a concept is used in an indirect sense to express a concept similar to the given one. Lakoff writes that in prose or poetic speech, metaphor lies outside of language, in thought, in the imagination, referring to Michael Reddy, his work “The Conduit Metaphor”, in which Reddy notes that metaphor lies in language itself, in everyday speech, and not only in poetry or prose. Reddy also states that “the speaker puts ideas (objects) into words and sends them to the listener, who extracts the ideas/objects from the words.” This idea is also reflected in the study by J. Lakoff and M. Johnson “Metaphors We Live By.” Metaphorical concepts are systemic, “metaphor is not limited to just the sphere of language, that is, the sphere of words: the processes of human thinking themselves are largely metaphorical. Metaphors as linguistic expressions become possible precisely because metaphors exist in the human conceptual system.”

Metametaphor

In 1984, following poetry, the term metametaphor burst into print, and to this day causes heated debate. Metametaphor is directly related to the geometry of Riemann and Lobachevsky and to the cosmology and physics of the 20th century, which itself is completely metametaphorical.

Metametaphor is the reverse perspective in a word. For example: “I was sitting on a mountain, drawn where the mountain is” (A. Eremenko). Or: “The bee flew inside itself” (I. Zhdanov). “Man is the wrong side of the sky / The sky is the wrong side of man” (K. Kedrov). These images, which emerged in the mid-1970s, marked the beginning of a new literature and a new poetry.

Personification

Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a type of metaphor, transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used when depicting nature, which is endowed with certain human traits. For example, the air breathes with aroma, the sky wants snow, the dawn smiles.

Personification was common in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to the poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the creativity of the OBERIUTs.

Metonymy

Metonymy (from ancient Greek ????????? - “renaming”, from ???? - “above” and ?????/????? - “name” ) - a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one way or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is denoted by the replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense. Metonymy is a relationship between two types of lexical meanings - subject-logical and contextual, based on identifying specific connections between objects.

Metonymy, like metaphor, on the one hand, is a way of forming new words and a stylistic device, on the other. Thus, metonymy is divided into “linguistic and speech”.

Just like speech metaphor, speech metonymy is always original, while linguistic metonymy is cliched. Metonymy gray hairs instead of old age; bottle instead of drunkenness - linguistic metonymies.

Speech metonymies can be artistically meaningful or accidental.

In a sentence: “Where feed, and clothe, and save, From the cradle to the grave Those ungrateful drones who would Drain your sweat -- nay, drink your blood!” (Shelley) The words cradle and grave are artistically meaningful metonymies. Here the relationship between the concrete concept of grave and the abstract concept of death is completely obvious. The same is true in the word cradle - the concrete concept of cradle acts as a replacement for the abstract concept - birth. The concrete here is a symbol of the abstract. This type of relationship can be called a substitution by relationship between a specific expression abstract concept and the abstract concept itself.

Another type of relationship revealed in metonymy is the relationship of a part to a whole or a whole to a part. Consider the following sentence: “Miss Fox"s hand trembled she slipped through Mr. Dombey"s arm, and felt herself escorted up the steps, preceded by a cocked hat and a Babylonian collar" (Ch. Dickens), where the words hat and collar respectively denote the people wearing these toilet items.

The meaning of metonymy is that it identifies a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the others. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, in the greater real interconnection of the replacing members, and on the other hand, in its greater restrictiveness, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in a given phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring,” the meaning of which is metonymically extended from an action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.

Types of metonymy:

• · general language
• · general poetic
• · general newspaper
• · individual author's

Synecdoche

Synecdoche (ancient Greek ?????????) is a trope consisting of naming a whole through its part or vice versa. Synecdoche is a type of metonymy.

Synecdoche is a technique consisting of transferring meaning from one object to another based on the quantitative similarity between them.

For example:

"The buyer chooses quality products" The word “Buyer” replaces the entire set of possible buyers.

"Little Red Riding Hood". Classic example. The phrase “Little Red Riding Hood” replaces the image of “a girl in a red riding hood.”

Irony (from ancient Greek ?????????? - “pretense”) is a trope in which true meaning hidden or contrary to (contrasted with) the explicit meaning. Irony creates the feeling that the subject of discussion is not what it seems. According to Aristotle's definition, irony is “a statement containing ridicule of someone who really thinks so.”

Irony is a stylistic device through which an interaction of two types of lexical meanings appears in a word: subject-logical and contextual, based on the relationship of opposition (inconsistency). Thus, these two meanings are actually mutually exclusive.

For example, It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket. The word delightful, as can be seen from the context, has a meaning opposite to the main subject-logical meaning. The stylistic effect is created by the fact that the main subject-logical meaning The word delightful is not destroyed by the contextual meaning, but coexists with it, clearly demonstrating the relationship of inconsistency.

The term "irony", as a stylistic device, should not be confused with the commonly used word "irony", which denotes a mocking expression.

Irony should not be mixed with humor. As you know, humor is a quality of action or speech that necessarily excites a sense of the funny. Humor is a psychological phenomenon. Irony does not necessarily cause laughter. In the sentence "How clever it is", where the intonation design of the entire sentence gives the word clever the opposite meaning - stupid does not evoke a feeling of funny. On the contrary, feelings of irritation, dissatisfaction, regret, etc. can also be expressed here.

Irony is sometimes used to create more subtle, subtle shades of modality, that is, to reveal the author’s attitude to the facts of reality. In this case, irony does not so straightforwardly realize the relationship of the contextual meaning of a word to the subject-logical meaning.

Forms of irony:

• · Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the phenomenon being described.
• · Socratic irony is a form of self-irony, constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as it were, independently comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “ignorant of the truth” subject.
• · An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows one not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various generally accepted values ​​too seriously.
• 1. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of subject-logical and nominal meanings

Antonomasia and its varieties

Among the stylistic devices based on identifying the relationship between two types of lexical meanings is the use of proper names in the meaning of common nouns, and, conversely, common nouns in the meaning of proper ones. In this stylistic use, we are dealing with the simultaneous implementation of two types of lexical meanings: subject-logical and denominative, basic subject-logical and contextual-denotative.

Antonomasia is one of the special cases of metonymy, which is based on the relationship between the place where an event occurred and the event itself, a person known for some act, activity and the act or activity itself. This relationship is manifested in the interaction of denomination and subject-logical meaning. Antonomasia, antonomasia (from ancient Greek ??????????? - renaming) is a trope expressed in the replacement of a name or name with an indication of some essential feature of an object or its relationship to something. The name of Latin origin for the same poetic trope or, in a different perspective, rhetorical figure is pronomination (from Latin pronominatio).

Antonomasia is also divided into linguistic and speech. The word “Sedan” in modern literary languages ​​means defeat, the word “Panama” means a major scam, fraud. These are linguistic antonomasies.

An example of a replacement for an essential feature of an item: “ great poet" instead of "Pushkin". An example of a replacement to indicate a relationship: “the author of War and Peace” instead of “Tolstoy”; "Son of Peleus" instead of "Achilles".

In addition, antonomasia is also the replacement of a common noun with a proper name: “Othello” instead of jealous, “Aesculapius” instead of “doctor.”

Antonymy in both cases is a special type of metonymy.

3. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of subject-logical and emotional meanings.

An epithet is an expressive means based on highlighting a quality, a sign of the phenomenon being described, which is formalized in the form of attributive words or phrases that characterize this phenomenon from the point of view of individual perception of this phenomenon. The epithet is considered by many researchers as the main means of establishing an individual, subjective-evaluative attitude towards the phenomenon being described. Through the epithet, the desired reaction to the statement on the part of the reader is achieved.

Indeed, in such combinations as destructive charms, glorious sight, encouraging smile, there is everywhere an element of affirmation of an individual feeling, a subjective assessment of the phenomena described.

IN English language, as in other languages, the frequent use of epithets with specific qualifiers creates stable combinations. Such combinations are gradually phraseologized, that is, they turn into phraseological units. Epithets seem to be assigned to certain words. In combinations of this kind, epithets are called fixed epithets. Most often, constant epithets are found in folk oral poetry. A. N. Veselovsky wrote about the gradual loss of the main objective meaning in the epithet. He called this “oblivion” of the real meaning of the epithet, and its adherence to what is being defined - the process of “petrification”.

Epithets are a powerful tool in the hands of the writer to create the necessary emotional background of the narrative; they are designed for a certain reaction from the reader.

Epithets can be divided into two groups:

• · those that endow the described phenomenon with some feature, sign, unusual for this phenomenon. For example: ridiculous excuse; sleepless bay; dazzling beauty; a butterfly girl.
• · those that highlight one of the signs of a phenomenon, sometimes insignificant, secondary, but characteristic of a given phenomenon, and they define this phenomenon. For example: fantastic terrors (E. R o e); dark forest; glowy twilight; slavish knees (J. Keats); thoughtless boy (J. Keats); midnight dreary (E. P o e.)

The scope of use of the epithet is the style of artistic speech. Here he almost reigns supreme. The less any style of speech allows in quality characteristic features manifestation of the individual, the less often epithets are found in it. They are almost absent in business documentation, newspaper reports and other styles that are devoid of individual features in the use of popular means of language.

Oxymoron

Oxymoron, oxymoron (ancient Greek ???????? - “sharp stupidity”) - a stylistic figure or a stylistic error - a combination of words with the opposite meaning (that is, a combination of incompatible things). An oxymoron is usually understood as a combination of an attributive nature in which the meaning of the definition contradicts or logically excludes the meaning of the defined. For example, sweet sorrow, nice rascal, low skyscraper. The members of such an attributive combination are, as it were, forcibly linked into one concept, despite the fact that there is a noticeable tendency in them to push away from each other rather than to connect.

Oxymorons, like other stylistic devices, are usually used to more vividly characterize, describe an object, phenomenon, or facts of surrounding life. They are rare.

Speech (original) oxymorons are those in which the main subject-logical meaning of the definition interacts with its contextual emotional meaning. Moreover, the emotional meaning is easily combined with the objective-logical meaning and, therefore, does not contradict the logical understanding of the combination; on the other hand, connecting with the objective-logical meaning of what is being defined, the objective-logical meaning of the definition itself stands out more specifically and creates the impression of an internal semantic contradiction.

So, for example, the lines below especially clearly show the mutually exclusive subject-logical meanings of the words silent and thunder, combined into one phrase:

I have but one simile, and that"s a blunder, For wordless woman, which is silent thunder.

The main function of oxymorons is the function of expressing the author’s personal attitude to the phenomena described.

An oxymoron is characterized by the deliberate use of contradiction to create a stylistic effect. From a psychological point of view, an oxymoron is a way of resolving an inexplicable situation.

Oxymoron is often used in the titles and text of prose literary works and films: “Endless Dead End”, “Ordinary Miracle”.

Used to describe objects that combine opposite qualities: “masculine woman”, “feminine boy”.

Hyperbola

Hyperbole (from ancient Greek ???????? - “transition”, “exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of obvious and deliberate exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the said thought, for example “I said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."

Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them an appropriate coloring: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors, etc. (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation portrayed may also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical and oratorical style, as a means of pathetic elation, as well as the romantic style, where pathos comes into contact with irony. Among Russian authors, Gogol is especially prone to hyperbole, and among poets, Mayakovsky. Examples:

• · Phraseologisms and catchwords: “sea of ​​tears”, “quick as lightning”, “lightning fast”, “numerous like sand on the seashore”, “we haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”
• · Ancient examples: Give me a fulcrum and I will move the Earth. - Archimedes
• · Hyperbolic metaphors in the Gospel: “Why do you look at the speck in your brother’s eye, but do not notice the log in your own eye?” (Matthew 7:1-3). In this figurative picture, a critical person proposes to take the straw out of his neighbor’s “eye.” The critic wants to say that his neighbor does not see clearly and therefore is not able to judge sensibly, while the critic himself is prevented from judging sensibly by a whole log.
• · Classics of Marxism: What a lump, eh? What a seasoned little man! - V.I. Lenin. Leo Tolstoy as a mirror of the Russian revolution
• · Prose: Ivan Nikiforovich, on the contrary, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were inflated, the entire yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them. - N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich

Hyperbole is an artistic technique of exaggeration, and such an exaggeration that, from the point of view of the real possibilities of realizing a thought, seems doubtful or simply incredible. Hyperbole should not be confused with simple exaggeration, which can express the emotional state of the speaker. For example, “I"ve told you fifty times" is not a hyperbole, that is, a stylistic device of exaggeration, but only such an exaggeration that expresses emotional condition speaker.

When people say, "I"ve told you fifty times" They mean to scold and very often do.

In colloquial speech, which is always emotionally charged, such exaggerations are common: I beg a thousand pardons; scared to death tremendously angry; immensely obliged; I"ll give the world to see him. They are sometimes called colloquial hyperboles. Such hyperboles are the property of the language. They are reproduced in speech in finished form.

The exaggeration here is based mainly on the interaction of two types of lexical meanings of words. The subject-logical meanings of the words thousand, tremendously, etc. acquire emotional meanings.

Subtle remarks about the essence of hyperbole and its emotional meaning were made by A. A. Potebnya:

“Hyperbole is the result of a kind of intoxication with a feeling that prevents us from seeing things in their true dimensions. Therefore, it rarely, only in exceptional cases, occurs in people of sober and calm observation. If the mentioned feeling cannot captivate the listener, then the hyperbole becomes an ordinary lie.”

When a writer uses hyperbole, he always expects the reader to understand the exaggeration as a deliberate stylistic device. In other words, artistic hyperbole provides for a kind of mutual agreement between the creator of the hyperbole and the reader. Both understand that this statement has a certain connotation. Both agree that this is one of the forms of more colorfully, brightly, prominently, emotionally expressing the attitude towards the described phenomena.

In hyperbole, perhaps more than in other techniques, the difference between emotional meaning and emotional coloring is manifested. In hyperbole, the words retain their subject-logical meaning, but illogicality gives the entire statement an emotional connotation (coloring).

Litota, litotes (from ancient Greek ??????? - simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate softening.

Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turn of phrase that contains an artistic understatement of the magnitude, strength of meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litotes in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, which is why it is also called inverse hyperbole. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two dissimilar phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison. For example: “A horse is the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.

Essentially, litotes is extremely close to hyperbole in its expressive meaning, which is why it can be considered as a type of hyperbole. In ancient works on rhetoric, hyperbole was divided into “increase” (Ancient Greek: ??????? auxesis) and “decrease” (????????? tapinosis or ??????? meiosis ). On the other hand, litotes, by its verbal structure, can be classified as simile, metaphor, or epithet.

Many litotes are stable phrases. A significant part of them are phraseological units or idioms: “snail’s pace”, “at hand”, “The cat cried for money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.

Litota is also a stylistic figure of deliberately softening an expression by replacing a word or expression containing a statement of some attribute with an expression that denies the opposite attribute. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite.

For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “short”, “famous” - “not unknown”, “dangerous” - “unsafe”, “good” - “not bad”. In this meaning, litotes is one of the forms of euphemism.

4. Stylistic devices based on the interaction of basic and derivative (including non-free) subject-logical meanings.

Pun

Pun (French calembour) is a phrase containing a play on words based on the use of words that sound similar but have different meanings or different meanings of one word. In a pun, either two adjacent words produce a third word when pronounced, or one of the words has a homonym or is ambiguous. The effect of a pun, usually comic (humorous), lies in the contrast between the meaning of identical sounding words. At the same time, in order to make an impression, a pun must be new, striking with an as yet unknown juxtaposition of words. It is a special case of a play on words. A concept close in meaning is the concept of paronomasia. The origin of the word "pun" is unclear.

Historically, there were different spellings calambour, calembourg). Associated with it is the German word Kalauer, also of unclear origin. There are only a number of historical anecdotes connecting this word either with the name of the city of Kalemberg, or with various anecdotal personalities. In the time of Luther, the German pastor Weygand von Teben, famous for his jokes, allegedly lived in Kalmeberg. The pun was named after Count Calanbert or Calemberg from Westphalia, who lived under Louis XIV in Paré or at the court of Stanislav Leszczynski in Lecheville, or after the pharmacist Calanbur, who lived in Paris. There is also an assumption that the word “pun” comes from the Italian expression “calamo burlare” - to joke with a pen. F. Chals and after him Littre derived the word “pun” from the collection of jokes “Der Pfaffe von Kahlenberg” that appeared around 1500. One way or another, at the end of the 18th century. the word pun was already considered a word in the French language.

A play on words, or a pun, as is known, is most often built on the stylistic use of homonymy rather than polysemy.

For example, in Dickens's novel "Oliver Twist" there is the following passage:

Bow to the board," said Bumble, Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were lingering in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table, fortunately bowed to that.

Here we are dealing with a play on words, built on two different words - homonyms. The first word board is board, the second word board is board, table (a case of homonymy that arose as a result of a break in polysemy). Compositionally, the play on words is based here on the repetition of a sound complex. But this technique can be implemented without repeating the sound complex (i.e., the second homonym). For example, the title of O. Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest” is based on the simultaneous use of two different words - a proper noun and the adjective “serious”.

Zeugma (Greek ??????, [?zeugma] - “conjugation”, “connection”) is a term of ancient stylistics. Zeugmoy in in a broad sense ancient grammarians called such turns of speech when some word, most often a predicate, which must be repeated two or more times, is put once, and in other places it is only implied. As an example, they cited the following phrase: “I declare to the allies that they take up arms and that war should be waged” (implied - I declare).

Consider the case of implementing base and derived values ​​in the following example:

Clara. . . was not a narrow woman either in mind or body.

(J. Galsworthy. The Freelands.)

This example, in its composition, represents a stylistic device called zeugma. Zeugma is the relationship of one word simultaneously to two others in different semantic planes. This is usually achieved in the presence of homogeneous members of the sentence, and the semantic connections of a given word with a number of homogeneous members are not the same. For example:

The close of this creation brought him and the plate to the table.

The predicate has two complements. Each of the add-ons implements different meanings verb.

Paraphrases

Periphrase (periphrase; from ancient Greek ?????????? - “descriptive expression”, “allegory”: ???? - “around”, “near” and ????? ? - “statement”) - in stylistics and poetics, a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several. Periphrasis is an indirect mention of an object by not naming it, but describing it (for example, “night star” = “moon”).

Periphrases are divided into original and traditional. Traditional periphrases are those that are understandable even without the appropriate context, that is, to reveal the meaning of which no explanatory text is required.

Such periphrases include, for example, combinations like: cap and gown (student), a gentleman of the long robe (lawyer), the fair sex (women), my better half (wife), etc. These traditional periphrases are synonyms of the corresponding words , enclosed in parentheses. They are included in the vocabulary of the language as phraseological units.

Periphrases - synonyms are usually limited in their use to a certain scope and era in which certain traditional periphrases (periphrastic synonyms) were used.

Periphrases can be divided into logical and figurative. We will call logical periphrases those that, while highlighting some feature of an object, defining a concept in a new way, do not have any image at their core. Such paraphrases include the instruments of destruction; what can never be replaced, etc.

The basis of figurative periphrasis is metaphor or metonymy. The difference between metaphorical periphrases and metaphor and, accordingly, between metonymic periphrasis and metonymy is only the difference between a word and a phrase. Metaphorical periphrases include the sky-lamp of the night (moon), where the periphrasis is based on a metaphor. The above example of the gentleman of the long robe can be classified as a metonymic periphrasis, where the basis of the periphrasis is the relationship of concepts, and not their comparison.

We find the most general definition of this stylistic device in the work of Marx and Engels “German Ideology”, where periphrasis is defined as “a special form of speech, a description of one relationship as an expression, as a way of existence of another.”

Thus, a periphrasis is a stylistic device that, in the form of a free phrase or a whole sentence, replaces the name of the corresponding object or phenomenon.

A special case of periphrasis is euphemism - these are words and phrases that appear in the language to denote concepts that already have names, but for some reason are considered unpleasant, rude, indecent or low.

In English there is a group of words called dysphemisms or cacofemisms. Their stylistic function is the opposite of that performed by euphemisms. They express the concept in a sharper and rough form, - usually in a non-literary form, - in comparison with the word that is assigned to this concept.

Just like periphrases, artistic euphemisms require appropriate conditions for their decoding. Usually it's the context.

Comparison

Comparison is a figure of speech in which one object or phenomenon is compared to another according to some characteristic common to them. The purpose of comparison is to identify new properties in the object of comparison that are important for the subject of the statement.

The essence of this stylistic device is revealed by its very name. Two concepts, usually belonging to different classes of phenomena, are compared with each other according to any one of the features, and this comparison receives formal expression in the form of words such as: as, such as, as if, like, seem, etc.

A prerequisite for the stylistic device of comparison is the similarity of one feature with complete divergence of other features. Moreover, similarity is usually seen in those features that are not essential, characteristic of both objects (phenomena) being compared, but only of one of the members of the comparison. For example: “The gap caused by the fall of the house had changed the aspect of the street as the loss of a tooth changes that of a face.”

The only feature common to these two dissimilar concepts (street and face) is empty space. Naturally, the empty space (between houses) is not a characteristic feature of the concept - street; equally, it is not a characteristic feature, a sign of the concept of face. A random attribute is raised by comparison to the position of essential.

In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature, Latin tertium comparationis). One of the distinctive features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned.

Known different types comparisons:

• · Comparisons in the form of a comparative phrase formed with the help of conjunctions as if, as if “exactly”: “A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as the devil.”
• · Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: “My home is my fortress.”
• · Comparisons formed using a noun in the instrumental case: “he walks like a gogol.”
• · Negative comparisons: “An attempt is not torture.”
• · Comparisons in the form of a question.

Allusion (Latin allusio - joke, hint) is a stylistic figure containing a clear indication or a clear hint of a certain literary, historical, mythological or political fact, enshrined in textual culture or in colloquial speech.

For example, Dr. D. Tiptree Jr. made his debut in science fiction literature with the story “Birth of a Salesman” (1968), the title of which contains an allusion that refers the reader to the title of the play by American playwright Arthur Miller “Death of a Salesman” (1949).

Allusions are references to historical, literary, mythological, biblical and everyday facts. A quotation is an exact reproduction of a piece of text. Neither allusion nor quotations, as stylistic devices, are accompanied by an indication of sources. Allusions and quotations become a phraseological combination only if they are perceived as allusions and quotations, that is, if they are correlated with the works where they were used for the first time.

In other words, the constituent parts of a free phrase in the referenced text become associated if they are used in a different context.

There is such a passage in Dickens's novel "Dombey and Son"

Little Paul might have asked with Hamlet "into my grave?" so chill and earthly was the place.

The combination "into my grave?" is an allusion, that is, it becomes a phraseological combination, albeit of a temporary nature, for a given case. In the text of "Hamlet", from which this allusion is taken, "into my grave?" is a free combination. We can say that an allusion is a speech phraseological unit, in contrast to linguistic phraseological units, which are recorded in dictionaries as units of the vocabulary of a language. The allusion is usually made to well-known literary facts.

expressiveness lexical stylistics story Irving

Stylistic devices and expressive means

Stylistic techniques and means of expression

In linguistics, the following terms are often used: expressive means of language, expressive means of language, stylistic means, stylistic devices. These terms are often used synonymously, but sometimes they have different meanings.

It is not easy to draw a clear line between expressive means of language and stylistic techniques of language, although there are still differences between them.

Under expressive means of language we will understand such morphological, syntactic and word-formation forms of language that serve to emotionally or logically strengthen speech. These forms of language have been worked out by social practice, understood from the point of view of their functional purpose and recorded in grammars and dictionaries. Their use is gradually being normalized. Rules for using such expressive means of language are developed.

What should be understood by stylistic device? Before answering this question, we will try to determine the characteristic features of this concept. Stylistic device stands out and thereby contrasts with the means of expression by conscious literary processing of the linguistic fact. This conscious literary processing of language facts, including those that we called expressive means of language, has its own history. Even A. A. Potebnya wrote: “Starting from the ancient Greeks and Romans and with a few exceptions to our time, the definition of a verbal figure in general (without distinguishing between a trope and a figure) (i.e., what is included in the concept of stylistic devices ) cannot do without contrasting simple speech, used in its own, natural, original meaning, and decorated, figurative speech.” 1

Conscious processing of language facts was often understood as a deviation from commonly used norms of linguistic communication. So A. Ben writes: “A figure of speech is a deviation from the usual way of expressing itself in order to enhance the impression.” 2

In this regard, it is interesting to quote the following statement by Vandries: “Artistic style is always a reaction against a common language; to a certain extent, it is an argot, a literary argot, which can have various varieties...”

Sainsbury expresses a similar thought: “The true secret of style lies in breaking or neglecting the rules by which phrases, sentences and paragraphs are constructed.” (Our translation. I. G)

It goes without saying that the essence of a stylistic device cannot be a deviation from commonly used norms, since in this case the stylistic device would actually be opposed to a linguistic norm. In fact, stylistic devices use the norm of the language, but in the process of using it they take the most characteristic features of this norm, condense it, generalize it and typify it. Consequently, a stylistic device is a generalized

1 Potebnya A. A. From notes on the theory of literature. Kharkov, 1905, p. 201.

2 Ben A. Stylistics and theory of oral and written speech M., 1886, p. 8

typified reproduction of neutral and expressive facts of language in various literary styles of speech. Let's explain this with examples.

There is a stylistic device known as maxims. The essence of this technique is to reproduce the characteristic, typical features of a folk proverb, in particular its structural and semantic characteristics. A statement - a maxim has rhythm, rhyme, and sometimes alliteration; a maxim is figurative and epigrammatic, that is, it expresses some generalized thought in a condensed form.

Thus, the maxim and the proverb are correlated with each other as general and individual. This individual is based on the general, takes what is most characteristic of this general, and on this basis a certain stylistic device is created.

A stylistic device, being a generalization, typification, condensation of means that objectively exist in a language, is not a naturalistic reproduction of these means, but transforms them qualitatively. So, for example, improperly direct speech (see below) as a stylistic device is a generalization and typification of the characteristic features of inner speech. However, this technique qualitatively transforms inner speech. This latter, as is known, does not have a communicative function; improperly direct (depicted) speech has this function.

It is necessary to distinguish between the use of language facts (both neutral and expressive) for stylistic purposes and an already crystallized stylistic device. Not every stylistic use of linguistic means creates a stylistic device. So, for example, in the above examples from Norris’s novel, the author, in order to create the desired effect, repeats the words I and you. But this repetition, possible in the mouths of the novel’s heroes, only reproduces their emotional state.

In other words, in emotionally excited speech, the repetition of words, expressing a certain mental state of the speaker, is not intended to have any effect. The repetition of words in the author’s speech is not a consequence of such a mental state of the speaker and aims at a certain stylistic effect. This is a stylistic means of emotional

Stylistics deals with some special concepts that have nothing to do with a purely linguistic interpretation of linguistic categories.
Expressive means are phonetic means, grammatical forms, morphological forms, means of word formation, lexical, phraseological and syntactic forms that function in the language to emotionally intensify the utterance.
Expressive means are used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement; they are not associated with figurative meanings of the word.
Expressive means = repetitions, parallelisms, antitheses, phonetic devices, use of archaisms, neologisms, etc.
A stylistic device is the purposeful use of linguistic phenomena, including expressive means.
Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability compared to stylistic devices.
Stylistics deals with expressive means and stylistic devices, their nature, functions, classification and possible interpretation.

Classification of expressive means (Urve Lehtsaalu):

lexical group (poetic words, archaisms, dialectisms, neologisms)
phonetic group (rhythm, euphony (euphony)
grammatical group (inversion, elliptical sentences, repetition, exclamation)

Epithet- a definition in a word expressing the author’s perception:
silvery laugh silvery laugh
a thrilling tale
a sharp smile
The epithet always has an emotional connotation. It characterizes an object in a certain artistic way and reveals its features.
a wooden table ( wooden table) - only a description, expressed in an indication of the material from which the table is made;
a penetrating look (penetrating look) - epithet.

Comparison (simile)- a means of likening one object to another according to some characteristic in order to establish similarities or differences between them.
The boy seems to be as clever as his mother. The boy seems to be as smart as his mother.

Irony- a stylistic device where the content of a statement carries a meaning different from the direct meaning of this statement. The main purpose of irony is to evoke a humorous attitude in the reader towards the facts and phenomena described.
She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. She turned around with a sweet alligator smile.
But irony is not always funny; it can be cruel and offensive.
How clever you are! You're so clever! (Implies the opposite meaning - stupid.)

Hyperbole- exaggeration aimed at enhancing the meaning and emotionality of a statement.
I have told you it a thousand times. I've told you this a thousand times.

Litotes/Understatement (litotes/ understatement) - understatement of the size or significance of an object. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole.
a cat-sized horse
Her face isn't a bad one. She has a good face (instead of “good” or “beautiful”).

Periphrase/Paraphrase/Periphrase (periphrasis)- indirect expression of one concept with the help of another, its mention by not direct naming, but description.
The big man upstairs hears your prayers. The big man up there hears your prayers (under " big man"implies God).

Euphemism- a neutral expressive device used to replace uncultured and rude words in speech with softer ones.
toilet → lavatory/loo toilet → restroom

Oxymoron- creating a contradiction by combining words that have opposite meanings. The suffering was sweet! The suffering was sweet!

Zeugma- omitting repeated words in similar syntactic constructions to achieve a humorous effect.
She lost her bag and mind. She lost her bag and her mind.

Metaphor- transfer of the name and properties of one object to another based on their similarity.
floods of tears
a storm of indignation
a shadow of a smile
pancake/ball → the sun

Metonymy- renaming; replacing one word with another.
Note: Metonymy must be distinguished from metaphor. Metonymy is based on contiguity, on the association of objects. Metaphor is based on similarity.
Examples of metonymy:
The hall applauded. The hall welcomed us (by “hall” we mean not the room, but the spectators in the hall).
The bucket has spilled. The bucket splashed (not the bucket itself, but the water in it).

Synecdoche- a special case of metonymy; naming a whole through its part and vice versa.
The buyer chooses the quality products. The buyer selects quality goods (by “buyer” we mean all buyers in general).

Antonomasia- a type of metonymy. Instead of a proper name, a descriptive expression is used.
The Iron Lady The Iron Lady
Casanova Casanova
Mr. All-Know

Inversion- a complete or partial change in the direct order of words in a sentence. Inversion imposes logical tension and creates emotional coloring.
Rude am I in my speech. I am rude in my speech.

Repetition- an expressive means used by the speaker in a state of emotional tension, stress. Expressed in the repetition of semantic words.
Stop! Don"t tell me! I don"t want to hear this! I don"t want to hear what you"ve come for. Stop it! Do not tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you came back for.

Anadiplosis- using the last words of the previous sentence as the beginning words of the next one.
I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet. I climbed the tower, and the steps shook. And the steps shook under my feet.

Epiphora- using the same word or group of words at the end of each of several sentences.
Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Strength was given to me by fate. Luck was given to me by fate. And failure was given to me by fate. Everything in the world is decided by fate.

Anaphora/Unity of Birth (anaphora)- repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each speech passage.
What's the hammer? What the chain? Whose hammer was it, whose chains,
In what furnace was your brain? To seal your dreams?
What the anvil? What dread grasp Who took up your swift swing,
Dare its deadly terrors clasp? Got mortal fear?
("The Tiger" by William Blake; Translation by Balmont)

Polysyndeton/Multi-Union (polysyndeton)- a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually between homogeneous members. This stylistic device emphasizes the significance of each word and enhances the expressiveness of speech.
I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep. I will either go to a party or study for an exam or watch TV or go to bed.

Antithesis/contraposition- comparison of images and concepts that are opposite in meaning or opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the hero or author.
Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty. Youth is beautiful, old age is lonely, youth is fiery, old age is frosty.
Important: Antithesis and antithesis are two different concepts, but in English they are denoted by the same word antithesis [æn"t???s?s]. A thesis is a judgment put forward by a person, which he proves in some reasoning, and antithesis - a proposition opposite to the thesis.

Ellipsis- deliberate omission of words that do not affect the meaning of the statement.
Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends. Some people go to priests, others to poetry, I go to friends.

Aposiopesis (aposiopesis])- a sudden stop in speech, making it unfinished; interrupting one sentence and starting a new one.
I if only could I ... But now is not the time to tell it. If only I could, I... But now is not the time to talk about it (instead of an ellipsis in English, a dash can be used. For more information about punctuation, see the material “Punctuation Marks”).

Rhetoric/rhetorical questions- a question that does not require an answer, since it is already known in advance. A rhetorical question is used to enhance the meaning of a statement, to give it greater significance.
Have you just said something? Did you say something? (Like a question asked by a person who did not hear the words of another. This question is asked not in order to find out whether the person said something at all or not, since this is already known, but in order to find out exactly what he said.

Pun/Wordplay (pun)- jokes and riddles containing puns.
What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver?
(One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)
What is the difference between a teacher and a driver?
(One guides our minds, the other knows how to drive a train).

Interjection- a word that serves to express feelings, sensations, mental states, etc., but does not name them.
O! Oh! Ah! ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Oh!
Aha! (Aha!)
Pooh! Ugh! Ugh! ugh!
Gosh! Damn it! Oh shit!
Hush! Quiet! Shh! Tsits!
Fine! Fine!
Yah! Yah?
Gracious Me! Gracious! Fathers!
Christ! Jesus! Jesus Christ! Good gracious! Goodness gracious! Good heavens! Oh my god! (Lord! My God!

Cliche/Stamp (cliche)- an expression that has become banal and hackneyed.
Live and learn. Live and learn.

ProverbsAndsayings(proverbs and sayings).
A shut mouth catches no flies. Even a fly cannot fly into a closed mouth.

Idiom/set phrase- a phrase whose meaning is not determined by the meaning of its constituent words taken individually. Due to the fact that the idiom cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring.
No matter
Cloud up Frown

With an active understanding of style, any linguistic methods and means aimed at reflecting the meaningful originality of the text in its speech organization: in the interrelations of text units specific to the sphere of communication, in composition, etc., become style-forming.

The substantive originality of the text can be emphasized, strengthened, intensified by means with subjective (expressive-emotional-evaluative) and functional properties that complement the subject-logical and grammatical meanings of the language unit. However, the idea of ​​complementarity, i.e. the secondary™, subjective component of the semantics of a linguistic unit is quite reasonably disputed. Observations of Russian speech show that in the content of linguistic units, subject-logical and emotional components are combined in different proportions. If we compare the semantic features of words dunce, bloody, satrap, in which emotional-evaluative information clearly dominates, and interjections expressing feelings (well well, Ouch, yah you), where it is the only one, then we will make sure that all components of the value can be considered as potentially equal.

Stylistic coloring is any coloring of a linguistic unit, including professional, genre, nationally specific, as well as socio-political, moral and ethical, etc.

All stylistic shades are revealed in the foyer of a neutral stylistic color. Neutral are units that, used in all spheres of communication and in all genres, do not introduce stylistic shades into them and do not have an emotionally expressive coloring. For example, in the sentence Yakov caught a fish the attitude towards the subject of speech is not expressed, but in the sentence Yakov caught a huge fish this attitude is expressed.

Any type of stylistic coloring is formed as a manifestation of the subjective principle. Types of stylistic coloring have different natures. In the Russian language, against the background of neutral linguistic means, the means of book-written and oral speech are distinguished.

Linguistic means used primarily in the written book sphere are marked “bookish” in dictionaries - an indication of their stylistic coloring. Means that give speech a conversational character are labeled “colloquial.” The stylistic coloring of book and colloquial vocabulary is revealed against the background of neutral vocabulary, for example, in a series of synonyms: things(neutral) - property(neutral) - belongings; punishment(neutral) - punishment - catch up. The introduction of a colloquial element into book speech complicates its stylistic design, introducing into it various paints- ironic, intimate, etc. Compare, for example, in an interview: Cultural policy could be to promote a local museum of cucumber, mouse, vodka or something else(Ogonek. 07/15/2013). In turn, colloquial speech can take on a so-called bookish tone. Compare, for example, the expression of irony in everyday dialogue: “Well, how do you like the exhibition?” - « You know, I didn’t get into this art concept of theirs at all.”

Against the background of neutral means, a wide range of means with a stable emotional-expressive coloring stands out: ironic, disapproving, contemptuous, caressing, solemnly elated, etc. This coloring is given by the presence in the meaning of the word evaluative™ - attitude to the subject of speech, which greatly complicates its naming function (often through emotionality): bungler, slob, grump, idle talker, mongrel, clique, ruler, gift, almighty and so on. The word also takes on an evaluative and expressive connotation in a figurative meaning: toy(disapproving of a person who blindly acts according to someone else's will), emerge(about something negative that suddenly appeared), chlamys(jokingly about awkward clothes), after a fight the face is soft-boiled(here is the estimated meaning of the word soft-boiled - contemptuous or disapproving - depends on the speaker’s attitude towards the participants in the fight). Affixation (mainly suffixes) also gives words emotionality, expressiveness and generally stylistic connotations: mommy, home, granny, handy, light and so on.

Evaluativeness and expressiveness may not manifest themselves in the meaning of a word (in any case, initially), but in the tradition of use, which transforms its meaning or is reflected in it.

The presence of such words with a stylistic connotation - loftiness, solemnity, rhetoric, etc. determined by the tradition of their use in texts. As a rule, these words have the meaning of intensity of a positive quality: orbit('speaker'), broadcast(‘to speak, proclaim’), cry('address'), anticipate, good(‘good, worthy of approval’), dare('pursuit'). Sometimes the tradition of use gives a word expressiveness, but no semantic changes are observed in it: oratay('plowman'), accordion(‘singer, poet’), man-made, helm, army, cohort and so on.

There are two types of emotional-expressive coloring: with a positive (meliorative) and with a negative (pejorative) evaluation. Meliorative shades include such as solemn, sublime, rhetorical, sublimely poetic, approving, playful, etc. In the Russian language, there is an exceptional variety of pejorative shades, which are classified as disapproving, contemptuous, reproachful, dismissive-familiar, abusive, etc.

Evaluative shades are differentiated into emotional-evaluative: big guy, lanky, loafer, charming, crime, fiery, warrior, associate, from now on and so on. - and rational-evaluative: unfavorable, useful, defective, healthy, effective, unsuccessful and so on.

The functional and stylistic coloring of linguistic means appears as a result of their traditional attachment to a specific speech sphere. The means of book styles are divided into scientific, official business, journalistic, religious, and artistic. Thus, units of scientific style are characterized by neutrality, “dryness”, emphasizing unemotionalness. These features give speech the abstractness and generality characteristic of this style. Formal business style media are especially “dry” in terms of emotional expression.

Means with emotionally expressive overtones are systemic, since they are normatively limited to the scope of their use.

It is not easy to resolve the issue of functional and stylistic coloring of the means representing artistic speech, since the entire arsenal of linguistic means is actively used in literary texts. Nevertheless, linguistic means specific to artistic speech, especially for texts of classical literature, can be identified. Such means include, for example, poetic vocabulary: crown, cheeks, lips, face or folk poetic vocabulary that came from the language of oral folk poetry: red maiden, good fellow, wild little head, green oak tree and so on.

The religious style is characterized by pathos and solemnity, which is created through the use of means with appropriate coloring: descends from heaven, the path of temptation and expectation, truly, I believe, performing a prayer service and so on.

The existence of specific means of journalistic style, such as vocabulary, is sometimes disputed. However, when analyzing specific material, journalistic vocabulary and phraseology were highlighted, and journalistic means of other language levels were identified. Due to the fact that the role of the mass media in the formation of the “style appearance of the era” has increased significantly, such means of journalism are being formed that are distinguished by a unique combination of expression and standard. For example, the social and political terminology actively used in media texts has an expressive and emotional connotation: populism, aggression, corruption, bureaucracy and so on.

When studying the communicatively appropriate organization of speech varieties, all those linguistic means and features of their use that contribute to the most effective implementation of communicative tasks in a particular sphere are considered as stylistically significant.

In each speech variety, stylistic colors are created and activated, determined by the sphere and conditions of communication, and the purposefulness of the speech act. Increasing the use of units specific to functional style, creates a specific macro-coloring of the style.

Stylistic colors are used in speech in interaction, contributing to the expression of the author's communicative attitude - intentionality.

In modern conditions, colloquial vocabulary intensively penetrates book and written media speech, in which linguistic means of emotional and rational-evaluative layers interact. Only skillfully using the most diverse stylistically colored vocabulary will a professional be able to achieve his communicative goals.

When using stylistically colored means, it is important to understand that the same word can have several stylistic shades. Yes, word double-dealer is accompanied in dictionaries by the marks “bookish”, “journalistic”, “contemptuous”, and the word redneck -“colloquial” and “abusive”. In addition, an expressively emotionally charged word, depending on the context, can modify its stylistic connotation.

Compare, for example, the use of the word inspired(in dictionaries it is marked “high”): She didn't come out - she flew onto the stage, such was the ardent love for dance, and this inspired flight made ballet performances with her participation unforgettable(Komsom. Pravda. 12/24/2008); This inspired monologue was prompted by the conductor's request to pay for the fare.(Komsom. Pravda. 07.16.2008) - if in the first example inspired retains its usual stylistic characteristics, in the second it is used ironically.

Linguistic units that do not have a stable stylistic coloring have a connotative potential that can be used to realize various intentions of the speaker, usually using tropes and figures of speech.

• Kozhina M. N. and Duskaeva L. R., Salimovsky V. A. Stylistics of the Russian language. P. 86.
• For more details on this, see: Solganik G. Ya. Vocabulary of the newspaper (functional aspect). M., 1981.

Identification of the specifics of artistic translation of stylistic devices from English into Russian

graduate work

1.2 STYLISTIC DEVICES OF LITERARY SPEECH

translation literary text stylistic

In a work of fiction, the functions of the word are not limited to conveying certain information. Often the word is used for an aesthetic impact on the reader, which becomes possible thanks to artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger its impact on the reader Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. "Business Rhetoric". Publishing center "MarT", 2002.

Often in their works, writers turn not only to the vocabulary of the literary language, but also to outdated dialect words, as well as to vernacular words.

It should be noted that the emotionality of artistic storytelling is very different from the emotionality of conversational and journalistic styles. In a literary text it performs an aesthetic function. This style requires a careful and reasonable selection of linguistic means. A distinctive feature of a literary text is the use of special figures of speech that add brightness and imagery to the narrative.

Artistic and expressive means are very diverse and numerous. These include tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegories, metaphors, metonymies, synecdoche and the like. Also, the means of artistic expression include stylistic figures: epithets, hyperboles, litotes, anaphors, epiphoras, gradations, parallelisms, rhetorical questions, omissions, and the like.

The artistic style is characterized by the use large quantity tropes (turns of speech in which a word or expression is used figuratively). Ibid.

The trope is based on the transfer of the characteristics of one object or phenomenon to another. The transfer of characteristics in tropes is determined by various reasons, according to which tropes are divided into simple ones - epithets, comparisons; and complex ones - metaphors, allegories, ironies, hyperboles and others.

An epithet (from ancient Greek - “attached”) is a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (“second life”). Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental system Dictionary stylistic terms. M., 1996.

An epithet is also defined as a figurative or poetic definition, thereby emphasizing its opposition to the logical definition of an object, the task of which is also to concretize the idea of ​​the object.

A comparison (Latin “comparatio”) is a verbal expression in which the idea of ​​the depicted object is concretized by comparing it with another object, such that it contains the signs necessary to concretize the idea in a more concentrated manifestation. For example, “The globe of the earth is chained like a core to a leg” (M. Voloshin), in which the sign of the shape and heaviness of the globe is figuratively revealed in a “concentrated” form. Comparison has a trinomial structure: that which is compared, or the “subject” of comparison (Latin comparandum), that with which it is compared, the “image” (Latin comparatum), that on the basis of which they are compared with each other, a sign, according to to which the comparison takes place (lat. tertіum comparatіonіs).

A group of complex tropes is formed by metaphor, metonymy, as well as irony and sarcasm with their components.

A metaphor (from the Greek “transfer”) is a word whose meaning is transferred to the name of another object associated with the object to which this word usually indicates similarities. This is a figurative expression in which the characteristics of one object or action are transferred to others.

Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) occurs when certain objects are compared with a person or living beings and their properties.

Allegory or allegory (Greek allegorіa) is a method of two-level artistic depiction, which is based on concealing real persons, phenomena and objects under specific artistic images with corresponding associations with the characteristic features of what is being hidden. For example: “When he says his word, he will give you a ruble” (folklore).

An oxymoron or oxymoron is a type of metaphor that involves combining words of opposite meaning, similar to a negative comparison. Ibid.

In general, different forms of grammatical expression of metaphor are possible. Most often it is expressed by a verb and its forms or an adjective (metaphorical epithet), as a result of which, in particular, a metaphor expressed by a noun is perceived better. Losev A.F. The problem of artistic style. Kyiv. 1994

Metonymy is the second large group of complex tropes, which includes figurative expressions in which an object or phenomenon is described by replacing the name of another object or phenomenon associated with the first external or internal connections. For example, an expression such as “the whole theater applauded” contains the metonymy expressed by the word “theater”. This word is used here not in a literal, but in a figurative sense, since when we say this, we mean not that the theater applauded, but the spectators who were in it. At the same time, the concepts of “theater” and “spectators” are in close relationship, acting as close by their very nature, real, and not conditional, as is the case in metaphor. Metonymy is often identified with metaphor, or considered as its variety. However, they should still be distinguished. In this case, metonymy of place, time, space and belonging can be used.

The varieties of metonymy itself are synecdoche, periphrasis, hyperbole and litotes.

Synecdoche is one of the common types of metonymy - a figurative expression based on a quantitative comparison of objects and phenomena; on replacing a part of the whole, one object - their totality.

Periphrasis (Greek “description, retelling”) is a figurative expression in which the name of an object or phenomenon is replaced by a description of its characteristics. For example: instead of A. Pushkin, you can say - the author of the poem “Eugene Onegin”.

Hyperbole (Greek “exaggeration”) is a figurative expression that represents an artistic exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of an object or phenomenon. An example of hyperbole is many catchphrases: “haven’t seen each other for a hundred years,” “fast as lightning,” etc.

Unlike hyperbole, litotes, on the contrary, provides for an artistic reduction of characteristics, for example. At the heart of hyperbole and litotes there is always an element of a certain absurdity, a sharp contrast to common sense.

Irony as a trope is a figurative expression in which a word or group of words takes on a meaning opposite to the main one. And sarcasm is evil, bitter irony.

Ironic or sarcastic intonation reveals itself in a context that is more or less close to other statements of the author, the general tone of which makes it possible to catch in each individual case an ironic intonation that has not been directly identified. Sometimes antiphrasis (opposition), for example, “this Croesus” (relative to the poor man). Less common are expressions that take the form of so-called astheism, i.e. approval in the form of condemnation. Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental system explanatory dictionary of stylistic terms. M., 1996.

Along with tropes, various stylistic figures also provide imagery and expressiveness to artistic storytelling. These means are figures of speech and syntactic structures used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement.

Thus, a technique such as inversion (Latin “rearrangement”, “turning over”) is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the traditional (direct) order of words in a sentence in order to strengthen and emphasize the expressiveness of speech.

With parcellation, a sentence is divided into parts, in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another.

Non-union is a stylistic figure representing the non-union connection of homogeneous members simple sentence or parts of a complex sentence, while a polyunion, on the contrary, is an intentional increase in the number of unions in a sentence, as a rule, to connect homogeneous members.

Syntactic parallelism as a stylistic figure is characterized by the identical construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech.

It is also worth noting such stylistic figures as alliteration and assonance. Their function is to repeat consonant and vowel sounds respectively.

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