Spartans are residents of one of the ancient Greek city-states (city-states) on the territory of Ancient Greece, which existed from the 8th century. BC. Sparta ceased to exist after the Roman conquest of Greece in the 2nd half of the 2nd century. BC, however, the decline of Sparta began already in the 3rd century. BC. The Spartans created an original and distinctive civilization, strikingly different from the civilization of the rest of the ancient Greek city-states, and still attracting the attention of researchers. The basis of the Spartan state were the laws of Lycurgus, the Spartan king who lived in the 7th century BC.

Nature

The Spartan state was located in the southern part Greek peninsula Peloponnese. Geographical position Sparta was isolated. Sparta was located in a valley sandwiched between a river and mountains. In the valley there was a large number of fertile lands, and the foothills abounded in wild fruit trees, rivers and streams.

Classes

The main occupation of the Spartans was warfare. Crafts and trade were carried out by perieki - personally free, but deprived of political rights, residents of Sparta. Farming was carried out by helots - residents of the lands conquered by the Spartans, turned into state slaves. Due to the focus of the Sparatan state on the equality of all free citizens (and equality not in the legal, but in the literal - everyday sense), crafts were limited to the production of the most necessary items - clothing, dishes and other household utensils. Due to the military orientation of Sparta, only the production of weapons and armor was at a high technical level.

Means of transport

The Spartans used horses, carts and chariots. According to the laws of Lycurgus, the Spartans did not have the right to be sailors and fight at sea. However, in later periods the Spartans had a navy.

Architecture

The Spartans did not recognize excesses and therefore their architecture (both the external and internal decoration of buildings) was distinguished by extreme functionality. Naturally, with this approach, the Spartans did not create outstanding architectural structures.

Warfare

The Spartan army had a tough organizational structure, which evolved and differed in different time periods. Heavily armed infantrymen - hoplites were recruited from the citizens of Sparta and formed the basis of the army. Each Spartan came to war with his own weapon. The set of weapons was clearly regulated and consisted of a spear, short sword, round shield and armor (bronze helmet, armor and leggings). Each hoplite had a helot squire. Perieki, armed with bows and slings, also served in the army. The Spartans did not know fortification and siege warfare. In later periods of history, Sparta had a navy and won a number of naval victories, but the Spartans never paid much attention to military affairs at sea.

Sport

The Spartans prepared for war from childhood. From the age of 7, the child was taken from the mother, and a long and complex learning process began, lasting 13 years. This made it possible to raise a strong, skillful and experienced warrior by the age of 20. Spartan warriors were the best in Ancient Greece. Many types of athletic activities and competitions were practiced in Sparta. Spartan girls also underwent military-athletic training, which included such sections as running, jumping, wrestling, discus and javelin throwing.

Arts and literature

The Spartans despised art and literature, recognizing only music and singing. Spartan dances were more military than aesthetic.

The science

The Spartans studied only the basics of literacy - reading, writing, military and religious songs; history, religion and traditions of Sparta. All other types of science and education (including people involved in them) were expelled from the country and banned.

Religion

In general, the Spartans adhered to the ancient Greek polytheistic religion, with the difference that Sparta celebrated fewer religious holidays, and they celebrated them with less pomp. To a certain extent, the role of religion in Sparta was taken over by Spartan morality.

In the southeast of the largest Greek peninsula - the Peloponnese - the powerful Sparta was once located. This state was located in the region of Laconia, in the picturesque valley of the Eurotas River. His official name, which was most often mentioned in international treaties, - Lacedaemon. It was from this state that such concepts as “Spartan” and “Spartan” came. Everyone has also heard about the cruel custom that has developed in this ancient polis: Kill weak newborns to maintain the gene pool of your nation.

History of origin

Officially, Sparta, which was called Lacedaemon (from this word also came the name of the nome - Laconia), arose in the eleventh century BC. After some time, the entire area on which this city-state was located was captured by the Dorian tribes. Those, having assimilated with the local Achaeans, became Spartakiates in the sense known today, and the former inhabitants were turned into slaves called helots.

The most Doric of all the states that Ancient Greece once knew, Sparta, was located on the western bank of Eurotas, on the site of the modern city of the same name. Its name can be translated as “scattered.” It consisted of estates and estates that were scattered throughout Laconia. And the center was a low hill, which later became known as the acropolis. Sparta originally had no walls and remained true to this principle until the second century BC.

State system of Sparta

It was based on the principle of the unity of all full-fledged citizens of the polis. For this purpose, the state and law of Sparta strictly regulated the life and life of its subjects, restraining their property stratification. The foundations of such a social system were laid by the treaty of the legendary Lycurgus. According to him, the duties of the Spartans were only sports or the art of war, and crafts, agriculture and trade were the work of the helots and perioecs.

As a result, the system established by Lycurgus transformed the Spartiate military democracy into an oligarchic-slave-owning republic, which still retained some signs of a tribal system. Here, land was not allowed, which was divided into equal plots, considered the property of the community and not subject to sale. Helot slaves also, historians suggest, belonged to the state rather than to wealthy citizens.

Sparta is one of the few states that was simultaneously headed by two kings, who were called archagets. Their power was inherited. The powers that each king of Sparta had were limited not only to military power, but also to the organization of sacrifices, as well as to participation in the council of elders.

The latter was called gerusia and consisted of two archagets and twenty-eight geronts. The elders were elected by the people's assembly for life only from the Spartan nobility who had reached the age of sixty. Gerusia in Sparta performed the functions of a certain government body. She prepared issues that needed to be discussed at public assemblies, and also led foreign policy. In addition, the Council of Elders considered criminal cases, as well as state crimes, including those directed against the archaget.

Court

The legal proceedings and law of ancient Sparta were regulated by the college of ephors. This organ first appeared in the eighth century BC. It consisted of the five most worthy citizens of the state, who were elected by the people's assembly for only one year. At first, the powers of the ephors were limited only to the legal proceedings of property disputes. But already in the sixth century BC their power and powers were growing. Gradually they begin to displace gerusia. The ephors were given the right to convene a national assembly and gerousia, regulate foreign policy, implement internal management Sparta and its legal proceedings. This body was so important in the social structure of the state that its powers included monitoring officials, including the archaget.

People's Assembly

Sparta is an example of an aristocratic state. In order to suppress the forced population, whose representatives were called helots, the development of private property was artificially restrained in order to maintain equality among the Spartiates themselves.

The Apella, or popular assembly, in Sparta was characterized by passivity. Only full-fledged male citizens who had reached the age of thirty had the right to participate in this body. At first, the people's assembly was convened by the archaget, but subsequently its leadership also passed to the college of ephors. Apella could not discuss the issues put forward, she only rejected or accepted the solution she proposed. Members of the national assembly voted in a very primitive way: by shouting or dividing participants into different sides, after which the majority was determined by eye.

Population

The inhabitants of the Lacedaemonian state have always been class-unequal. This situation was created by the social system of Sparta, which included three classes: the elite, the perieki - free residents from nearby cities who did not have the right to vote, as well as state slaves - helots.

The Spartans, who were in privileged conditions, were exclusively engaged in war. They were far from trade, crafts and agriculture; all this was given over to the Perieks as a right. At the same time, the estates of the elite Spartans were cultivated by helots, whom the latter rented from the state. During the heyday of the state, there were five times fewer nobility than perieks, and ten times fewer helots.

All periods of the existence of this one of the most ancient states can be divided into prehistoric, ancient, classical, Roman and Each of them left its mark not only in the formation of the ancient state of Sparta. Greece borrowed a lot from this history in the process of its formation.

Prehistoric era

The Leleges initially lived on the Laconian lands, but after the capture of the Peloponnese by the Dorians, this region, which was always considered the most infertile and generally insignificant, as a result of deception, went to two minor sons of the legendary king Aristodemus - Eurysthenes and Proclus.

Soon Sparta became the main city of Lacedaemon, whose system for a long time did not stand out among the other Doric states. She kept constant external wars with neighboring Argive or Arcadian cities. The most significant rise occurred during the reign of Lycurgus, the ancient Spartan legislator, to whom ancient historians unanimously attribute the political structure that subsequently dominated Sparta for several centuries.

Antique era

After victory in the wars lasting from 743 to 723 and from 685 to 668. BC, Sparta was able to finally defeat and capture Messenia. As a result, its ancient inhabitants were deprived of their lands and turned into helots. Six years later, Sparta, at the cost of incredible efforts, defeated the Arcadians, and in 660 BC. e. forced Tegea to recognize her hegemony. According to the agreement stored on the column placed near Althea, she forced her to enter into a military alliance. It was from this time that Sparta in the eyes of the people began to be considered the first state of Greece.

The history of Sparta at this stage is that its inhabitants began to make attempts to overthrow the tyrants that had been appearing since the seventh millennium BC. e. in almost all Greek states. It was the Spartans who helped expel the Cypselids from Corinth, the Pisistrati from Athens, they contributed to the liberation of Sikyon and Phocis, as well as several islands in the Aegean Sea, thereby acquiring grateful supporters in different states.

History of Sparta in the classical era

Having concluded an alliance with Tegea and Elis, the Spartans began to attract the rest of the cities of Laconia and neighboring regions to their side. As a result, the Peloponnesian League was formed, in which Sparta assumed hegemony. These were wonderful times for her: she provided leadership in wars, was the center of meetings and all meetings of the Union, without encroaching on the independence of individual states that maintained autonomy.

Sparta never tried to extend its own power to the Peloponnese, but the threat of danger prompted all other states, with the exception of Argos, to come under its protection during the Greco-Persian wars. Having eliminated the immediate danger, the Spartans, realizing that they were unable to wage war with the Persians far from their own borders, did not object when Athens took further leadership in the war, limiting itself only to the peninsula.

From that time on, signs of rivalry between these two states began to appear, which subsequently resulted in the First, which ended with the Thirty Years' Peace. The fighting not only broke the power of Athens and established the hegemony of Sparta, but also led to a gradual violation of its foundations - the legislation of Lycurgus.

As a result, in 397 before our chronology, the uprising of Kinadon took place, which, however, was not crowned with success. However, after certain setbacks, especially the defeat at the Battle of Cnidus in 394 BC. e, Sparta ceded Asia Minor, but became a judge and mediator in Greek affairs, thus motivating its policy with the freedom of all states, and was able to secure primacy in an alliance with Persia. And only Thebes did not submit to the conditions set, thereby depriving Sparta of the benefits of such a shameful peace for her.

Hellenistic and Roman era

Starting from these years, the state began to decline quite quickly. Impoverished and burdened with the debts of its citizens, Sparta, whose system was based on the legislation of Lycurgus, turned into an empty form of government. An alliance was concluded with the Phocians. And although the Spartans sent them help, they did not provide real support. In the absence of King Agis, with the help of money received from Darius, an attempt was made to get rid of the Macedonian yoke. But he, having failed in the battles of Megapolis, was killed. The spirit that Sparta was so famous for, which had become a household name, gradually began to disappear.

Rise of an Empire

Sparta is a state that for three centuries was the envy of all of Ancient Greece. Between the eighth and fifth centuries BC, it was a collection of hundreds of cities, often at war with each other. One of the key figures for the establishment of Sparta as a powerful and strong state was Lycurgus. Before his appearance, it was not much different from the rest of the ancient Greek city-states. But with the arrival of Lycurgus, the situation changed, and priorities in development were given to the art of war. From that moment on, Lacedaemon began to transform. And it was during this period that it flourished.

Since the eighth century BC. e. Sparta began to wage wars of conquest, conquering one after another its neighbors in the Peloponnese. After a series of successful military operations, Sparta moved on to establishing diplomatic ties with its most powerful opponents. Having concluded several treaties, Lacedaemon stood at the head of the union of the Peloponnesian states, which was considered one of the powerful formations of Ancient Greece. The creation of this alliance by Sparta was supposed to serve to repel the Persian invasion.

The state of Sparta has been a mystery to historians. The Greeks not only admired its citizens, but feared them. One type of bronze shields and scarlet cloaks worn by the warriors of Sparta put their opponents to flight, forcing them to capitulate.

Not only the enemies, but also the Greeks themselves did not really like it when an army, even a small one, was located next to them. Everything was explained very simply: the warriors of Sparta had a reputation of being invincible. The sight of their phalanxes brought even the most seasoned into a state of panic. And although only a small number of fighters took part in the battles in those days, they never lasted long.

The beginning of the decline of the empire

But at the beginning of the fifth century BC. e. a massive invasion from the East marked the beginning of the decline of Sparta's power. The huge Persian empire, which always dreamed of expanding its territories, sent a large army to Greece. Two hundred thousand people stood at the borders of Hellas. But the Greeks, led by the Spartans, accepted the challenge.

Tsar Leonidas

Being the son of Anaxandrides, this king belonged to the Agiad dynasty. After the death of his older brothers, Dorieus and Clemen the First, it was Leonidas who took over the reign. Sparta in 480 years before our chronology was in a state of war with Persia. And the name of Leonidas is associated with the immortal feat of the Spartans, when a battle took place in the Thermopylae Gorge, which remained in history for centuries.

This happened in 480 BC. e., when the hordes of the Persian king Xerxes tried to capture the narrow passage connecting Central Greece with Thessaly. At the head of the troops, including the allied ones, was Tsar Leonid. Sparta at that time occupied a leading position among friendly states. But Xerxes, taking advantage of the betrayal of the dissatisfied, bypassed the Thermopylae Gorge and went behind the rear of the Greeks.

Having learned about this, Leonidas, who fought along with his soldiers, disbanded the allied troops, sending them home. And he himself, with a handful of warriors, whose number was only three hundred people, stood in the way of the twenty-thousand-strong Persian army. The Thermopylae Gorge was strategic for the Greeks. In case of defeat, they would be cut off from Central Greece, and their fate would be sealed.

For four days, the Persians were unable to break the incomparably smaller enemy forces. The heroes of Sparta fought like lions. But the forces were unequal.

The fearless warriors of Sparta died every single one. Their king Leonidas fought with them to the end, who did not want to abandon his comrades.

The name Leonid will forever go down in history. Chroniclers, including Herodotus, wrote: “Many kings have died and have long been forgotten. But everyone knows and respects Leonid. His name will always be remembered in Sparta, Greece. And not because he was a king, but because he fulfilled his duty to his homeland to the end and died as a hero. Films have been made and books have been written about this episode in the life of the heroic Hellenes.

Feat of the Spartans

The Persian king Xerxes, who was haunted by the dream of capturing Hellas, invaded Greece in 480 BC. At this time, the Hellenes held the Olympic Games. The Spartans were preparing to celebrate Carnei.

Both of these holidays obliged the Greeks to observe a sacred truce. This was precisely one of the main reasons why only a small detachment resisted the Persians in the Thermopylae Gorge.

A detachment of three hundred Spartans led by King Leonidas headed towards Xerxes’ army of thousands. Warriors were selected based on whether they had children. On the way, Leonid's militia was joined by a thousand people each from Tegeans, Arcadians and Mantineans, as well as one hundred and twenty from Orkhomenes. Four hundred soldiers were sent from Corinth, three hundred from Phlius and Mycenae.

When this small army approached the Thermopylae Pass and saw the number of Persians, many soldiers became afraid and began to talk about retreat. Some of the allies proposed withdrawing to the peninsula to guard the Isthmus. However, others were outraged by this decision. Leonidas, ordering the army to remain in place, sent messengers to all cities asking for help, since they had too few soldiers to successfully repel the Persian attack.

For four whole days, King Xerxes, hoping that the Greeks would take flight, did not begin hostilities. But seeing that this was not happening, he sent the Cassians and Medes against them with the order to take Leonidas alive and bring him to him. They quickly attacked the Hellenes. Each onslaught of the Medes ended in huge losses, but others took the place of the fallen. It was then that it became clear to both the Spartans and Persians that Xerxes had many people, but few warriors among them. The battle lasted the whole day.

Having received a decisive rebuff, the Medes were forced to retreat. But they were replaced by the Persians, led by Hydarnes. Xerxes called them an “immortal” squad and hoped that they would easily finish off the Spartans. But in hand-to-hand combat, they, like the Medes, failed to achieve great success.

The Persians had to fight in close quarters, and with shorter spears, while the Hellenes had longer spears, which gave a certain advantage in this fight.

At night, the Spartans again attacked the Persian camp. They managed to kill many enemies, but they main goal there was a defeat in the general turmoil of Xerxes himself. And only when it was dawn did the Persians see the small number of King Leonidas’s detachment. They pelted the Spartans with spears and finished them off with arrows.

The road to Central Greece was open for the Persians. Xerxes personally inspected the battlefield. Having found the dead Spartan king, he ordered him to cut off his head and put it on a stake.

There is a legend that King Leonidas, going to Thermopylae, clearly understood that he would die, so when his wife asked him during farewell what his orders would be, he ordered him to find a good husband and give birth to sons. This was the life position of the Spartans, who were ready to die for their Motherland on the battlefield in order to receive a crown of glory.

Beginning of the Peloponnesian War

After some time, the Greek city-states at war with each other united and were able to repel Xerxes. But, despite the joint victory over the Persians, the alliance between Sparta and Athens did not last long. In 431 BC. e. The Peloponnesian War broke out. And only several decades later was the Spartan state able to win.

But not everyone in Ancient Greece liked the supremacy of Lacedaemon. Therefore, half a century later, new ones broke out fighting. This time his rivals were Thebes, who and their allies managed to inflict a serious defeat on Sparta. As a result, the power of the state was lost.

Conclusion

This is exactly what ancient Sparta was like. She was one of the main contenders for primacy and supremacy in the ancient Greek picture of the world. Some milestones of Spartan history are sung in the works of the great Homer. The outstanding “Iliad” occupies a special place among them.

And now all that remains of this glorious polis are the ruins of some of its buildings and unfading glory. Legends about the heroism of its warriors, as well as a small town of the same name in the south of the Peloponnese peninsula, reached contemporaries.

The glory of Sparta, a Peloponnesian city in Laconia, is very loud in historical chronicles and in the world. It was one of the most famous policies of Ancient Greece, which did not know unrest and civil upheaval, and its army never retreated before its enemies.

Sparta was founded by Lacedaemon, who reigned in Laconia one and a half thousand years before the birth of Christ and named the city after his wife. In the first centuries of the city’s existence, there were no walls around it: they were erected only under the tyrant Naviz. True, they were later destroyed, but Appius Claudius soon erected new ones.

The ancient Greeks considered the creator of the Spartan state to be the legislator Lycurgus, whose life spanned approximately the first half of the 7th century BC. e. The population of ancient Sparta in its composition was divided at that time into three groups: Spartans, Perieki and Helots. The Spartans lived in Sparta itself and enjoyed all the rights of citizenship of their city-state: they had to fulfill all the requirements of the law and they were admitted to all honorary public positions. The occupation of agriculture and crafts, although it was not prohibited to this class, did not correspond to the way of education of the Spartans and was therefore despised by them.

Most of the land of Laconia was at their disposal; it was cultivated for them by the helots. To own land plot, the Spartan had to fulfill two requirements: strictly follow all the rules of discipline and provide a certain part of the income for the sissity - the public table: barley flour, wine, cheese, etc.

Game was obtained by hunting in state forests; Moreover, everyone who made a sacrifice to the gods sent part of the carcass of the sacrificial animal to the sissitium. Violation or failure to comply with these rules (for any reason) resulted in loss of citizenship rights. All full-fledged citizens of ancient Sparta, young and old, had to participate in these dinners, while no one had any advantages or privileges.

The circle of perieki also included free people, but they were not full citizens of Sparta. The Perieci inhabited all the cities of Laconia, except Sparta, which belonged exclusively to the Spartans. They did not politically constitute an entire city-state, since they received control in their cities only from Sparta. The perieki of various cities were independent of each other, and at the same time, each of them was dependent on Sparta.

Helots made up the rural population of Laconia: they were slaves of those lands that they cultivated for the benefit of the Spartans and Perieci. Helots also lived in cities, but city life was not typical for helots. They were allowed to have a house, a wife and a family; it was forbidden to sell helots outside their estates. Some scholars believe that the sale of helots was generally impossible, since they were the property of the state, and not of individuals. Some information has reached our times about the cruel treatment of the helots by the Spartans, although again some of the scientists believe that in this attitude there was more contempt.

Plutarch reports that every year (by virtue of the decrees of Lycurgus) the ephors solemnly declared war against the helots. Young Spartans, armed with daggers, walked throughout Laconia and exterminated the unfortunate helots. But over time, scientists found that this method of exterminating helots was legalized not during the time of Lycurgus, but only after the First Messenian War, when the helots became dangerous to the state.

Plutarch, the author of biographies of prominent Greeks and Romans, began his story about the life and laws of Lycurgus, warning the reader that nothing reliable could be reported about them. And yet he had no doubt that this politician was a historical figure.

Most modern scientists consider Lycurgus to be a legendary figure: the famous German historian of antiquity K.O. Muller was one of the first to doubt his historical existence back in the 1820s. He suggested that the so-called “laws of Lycurgus” are much older than their legislator, since they are not so much laws as ancient folk customs, rooted in the distant past of the Dorians and all other Hellenes.

Many scientists (U. Vilamowitz, E. Meyer and others) consider the biography of the Spartan legislator, preserved in several versions, as a late reworking of the myth of the ancient Laconian deity Lycurgus. Adherents of this trend questioned the very existence of “legislation” in ancient Sparta. Customs and rules that governed daily life E. Meyer classified the Spartans as “the everyday life of the Dorian tribal community,” from which classical Sparta grew almost without any changes.

But the results of archaeological excavations, which were carried out in 1906-1910 by an English archaeological expedition in Sparta, served as the reason for the partial rehabilitation of the ancient legend about the legislation of Lycurgus. The British explored the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia - one of the most ancient temples of Sparta - and discovered many works of art of local production: wonderful examples of painted ceramics, unique terracotta masks (not found anywhere else), objects made of bronze, gold, amber and ivory.

These finds, for the most part, somehow did not fit with the ideas about the harsh and ascetic life of the Spartans, about the almost complete isolation of their city from the rest of the world. And then scientists suggested that the laws of Lycurgus in the 7th century BC. e. were not yet put into action and the economic and cultural development of Sparta proceeded in the same way as the development of other Greek states. Only towards the end of the 6th century BC. e. Sparta closes in on itself and turns into the city-state as ancient writers knew it.

Due to the threat of a revolt of the helots, the situation was then restless, and therefore the “initiators of reforms” could resort (as often happened in ancient times) to the authority of some hero or deity. In Sparta, Lycurgus was chosen for this role, who little by little began to turn from a deity into a historical legislator, although ideas about his divine origin persisted until the time of Herodotus.

Lycurgus had the opportunity to bring order to a cruel and outrageous people, therefore it was necessary to teach them to resist the onslaught of other states, and for this to make everyone skilled warriors. One of the first reforms of Lycurgus was the organization of governance of the Spartan community. Ancient writers claimed that he created a Council of Elders (gerusia) of 28 people. The elders (geronts) were elected by the apella - the people's assembly; The gerousia also included two kings, one of whose main duties was command of the army during the war.

From the descriptions of Pausanias we know that the period of the most intensive construction activity in the history of Sparta was the 6th century BC. e. At this time, the temple of Athena Copperhouse on the acropolis, the portico of Skiada, the so-called “throne of Apollo” and other buildings were erected in the city. But Thucydides, who saw Sparta in the last quarter of the 5th century BC. e., the city made the most bleak impression.

Against the background of the luxury and grandeur of Athenian architecture from the time of Pericles, Sparta already seemed like a nondescript provincial town. The Spartans themselves, not afraid of being considered old-fashioned, did not stop worshiping archaic stone and wooden idols at a time when Phidias, Myron, Praxiteles and other outstanding sculptors of Ancient Greece were creating their masterpieces in other Hellenic cities.

In the second half of the 6th century BC. e. there was a noticeable cooling of the Spartans towards Olympic Games. Before that, they took the most active part in them and accounted for more than half of the winners, in all major types of competitions. Subsequently, for the entire time from 548 to 480 BC. e., only one representative of Sparta, King Demaratus, won a victory and only in one type of competition - horse racing at the hippodrome.

To achieve harmony and peace in Sparta, Lycurgus decided to forever eradicate wealth and poverty in his state. He banned the use of gold and silver coins, which were used throughout Greece, and instead introduced iron money in the form of obols. They bought only what was produced in Sparta itself; In addition, they were so heavy that even a small amount had to be transported on a cart.

Lycurgus also prescribed a way of home life: all Spartans, from the common citizen to the king, had to live in exactly the same conditions. A special order indicated what kind of houses could be built, what clothes to wear: they had to be so simple that there was no room for any luxury. Even the food had to be the same for everyone.

Thus, in Sparta, wealth gradually lost all meaning, since it was impossible to use it: citizens began to think less about their own good, and more about the state. Nowhere in Sparta did poverty coexist with wealth; as a result, there was no envy, rivalry and other selfish passions that exhaust a person. There was no greed, which pits private benefit against public good and arms one citizen against another.

One of the Spartan youths, who purchased land for next to nothing, was put on trial. The accusation said that he was still very young, but was already seduced by profit, while self-interest is the enemy of every resident of Sparta.

Raising children was considered one of the main duties of a citizen in Sparta. The Spartan, who had three sons, was exempted from guard duty, and the father of five was exempted from all existing duties.

From the age of 7, the Spartan no longer belonged to his family: children were separated from their parents and began a social life. From that moment on, they were brought up in special detachments (agels), where they were supervised not only by their fellow citizens, but also by specially assigned censors. Children were taught to read and write, taught to remain silent for a long time, and to speak laconically - briefly and clearly.

Gymnastic and sports exercises were supposed to develop dexterity and strength in them; in order for there to be harmony in the movements, young men were obliged to participate in choral dances; hunting in the forests of Laconia developed patience for difficult trials. The children were fed rather poorly, so they made up for the lack of food not only by hunting, but also by stealing, since they were also accustomed to theft; however, if anyone was caught, they beat him mercilessly - not for theft, but for awkwardness.

Young men who reached the age of 16 were subjected to a very severe test at the altar of the goddess Artemis: they were severely flogged, but they had to remain silent. Even the smallest cry or groan contributed to the continuation of the punishment: some could not stand the test and died.

In Sparta there was a law according to which no one should be fatter than necessary. According to this law, all young men who have not yet reached civil rights, were shown to the ephors - members of the election commission. If the young men were strong and strong, then they were praised; young men whose bodies were considered too flabby and loose were beaten with sticks, since their appearance disgraced Sparta and its laws.

Plutarch and Xenophon wrote that Lycurgus legitimized that women should perform the same exercises as men, and thereby become strong and be able to give birth to strong and healthy offspring. Thus, Spartan women were worthy of their husbands, since they too were subject to a harsh upbringing.

The women of ancient Sparta, whose sons died, went to the battlefield and looked where they were wounded. If it was in the chest, then the women looked at those around them with pride and buried their children with honor in their father’s tombs. If they saw wounds on the back, then, sobbing with shame, they hurried to hide, leaving others to bury the dead.

Marriage in Sparta was also subject to the law: personal feelings had no meaning, because it was all a matter of state. Boys and girls whose physiological development corresponded to each other and from whom healthy children could be expected could enter into marriage: marriage between persons of unequal build was not allowed.

But Aristotle speaks quite differently about the position of Spartan women: while the Spartans led a strict, almost ascetic life, their wives indulged in extraordinary luxury in their home. This circumstance forced men to get money often through dishonest means, because direct means were prohibited to them. Aristotle wrote that Lycurgus tried to subject Spartan women to the same strict discipline, but was met with decisive rebuff from them.

Left to their own devices, women became self-willed, indulged in luxury and licentiousness, they even began to interfere in state affairs, which ultimately led to a real gynecocracy in Sparta. “And what difference does it make,” Aristotle asks bitterly, “whether the women themselves rule or whether the leaders are under their authority?” The Spartans were blamed for the fact that they behaved boldly and impudently and allowed themselves to indulge in luxury, thereby challenging the strict norms of state discipline and morality.

To protect his legislation from foreign influence, Lycurgus limited Sparta's connections with foreigners. Without permission, which was given only in cases of special importance, the Spartan could not leave the city and go abroad. Foreigners were also prohibited from entering Sparta. The inhospitality of Sparta was the most famous phenomenon in the ancient world.

The citizens of ancient Sparta were something like a military garrison, constantly training and always ready for war either with the helots or with an external enemy. The legislation of Lycurgus took on an exclusively military character also because those were times when there was no public and personal security, and generally all the principles on which state tranquility is based were absent. In addition, the Dorians, in very small numbers, settled in the country of the helots they had conquered and were surrounded by half-conquered or not at all conquered Achaeans, therefore they could only hold out through battles and victories.

Such a harsh upbringing, at first glance, could make the life of ancient Sparta very boring, and the people themselves unhappy. But from the writings of ancient Greek authors it is clear that such unusual laws made the Spartans the most prosperous people in the ancient world, because everywhere only competition in the acquisition of virtues reigned.

There was a prediction according to which Sparta would remain a strong and powerful state as long as it followed the laws of Lycurgus and remained indifferent to gold and silver. After the war with Athens, the Spartans brought money to their city, which seduced the inhabitants of Sparta and forced them to deviate from the laws of Lycurgus. And from that moment on, their valor began to gradually fade away...

Aristotle believes that it was the abnormal position of women in Spartan society that led to the fact that Sparta in the second half of the 4th century BC. e. terribly depopulated and lost its former military power.

Ancient Sparta was the main economic and military rival of Athens. The city-state and its surrounding territory were located on the Peloponnese peninsula, southwest of Athens. Administratively, Sparta (also called Lacedaemon) was the capital of the province of Laconia.

The adjective “Spartan” came to the modern world from energetic warriors with an iron heart and steely endurance. The inhabitants of Sparta were famous not for their arts, science or architecture, but for their brave warriors, for whom the concepts of honor, courage and strength were placed above all else. Athens at that time, with its beautiful statues and temples, was a stronghold of poetry, philosophy and politics, and thereby dominated the intellectual life of Greece. However, such dominance had to end someday.

Raising children in Sparta

One of the principles that guided the inhabitants of Sparta was that the life of every person, from birth to death, belongs entirely to the state. The elders of the city were given the right to decide the fate of newborns - healthy and strong were left in the city, and weak or sick children were thrown into the nearest abyss. This is how the Spartans tried to secure physical superiority over their enemies. Children who went through “natural selection” were brought up under conditions of severe discipline. At the age of 7, boys were taken from their parents and raised separately, in small groups. The strongest and bravest young men eventually became captains. The boys slept in common rooms on hard and uncomfortable reed beds. The young Spartans ate simple food - soup made from pork blood, meat and vinegar, lentils and other roughage.

One day, a rich guest who came to Sparta from Sybaris decided to try the “black soup”, after which he said that now he understands why Spartan warriors give up their lives so easily. Boys were often left hungry for several days, thereby inciting them to petty theft in the market. This was not done with the intention of making the young man a skilled thief, but only to develop ingenuity and dexterity - if he was caught stealing, he was severely punished. There are legends about one young Spartan who stole a young fox from the market, and when it was time for lunch, he hid it under his clothes. To prevent the boy from being caught stealing, he endured the pain of the fox gnawing his stomach and died without making a single sound. Over time, discipline only became stricter. All adult men, between the ages of 20 and 60, were required to serve in the Spartan army. They were allowed to marry, but even after that, the Spartans continued to sleep in barracks and eat in common canteens. Warriors were not allowed to own any property, especially gold and silver. Their money looked like iron rods of different sizes. Restraint extended not only to everyday life, food and clothing, but also to the speech of the Spartans. In conversation they were very laconic, limiting themselves to extremely concise and specific answers. This manner of communication in Ancient Greece was called “laconicism” after the area in which Sparta was located.

Life of the Spartans

In general, as in any other culture, issues of everyday life and nutrition shed light on interesting little things in people’s lives. The Spartans, unlike residents of other Greek cities, did not attach much importance to food. In their opinion, food should not be used to satisfy, but only to saturate a warrior before battle. The Spartans dined at a common table, and everyone handed over food for lunch in the same quantity - this is how the equality of all citizens was maintained. The neighbors at the table kept a watchful eye on each other, and if someone did not like the food, he was ridiculed and compared to the spoiled inhabitants of Athens. But when the time came for battle, the Spartans changed radically: they put on their best outfits, and marched towards death with songs and music. From birth, they were taught to perceive each day as their last, not to be afraid and not to retreat. Death in battle was desired and equated to the ideal end to the life of a real man. There were 3 classes of inhabitants in Laconia. The first, most revered, included residents of Sparta who had military training and participated in the political life of the city. Second class - perieki, or residents of surrounding small towns and villages. They were free, although they did not have any political rights. Engaged in trade and handicrafts, perieks were a kind of “ service personnel"for the Spartan army. Lower class - helots, were serfs, and not much different from slaves. Due to the fact that their marriages were not controlled by the state, the helots were the most numerous category of inhabitants, and were restrained from revolt only by the iron grip of their masters.

Political life of Sparta

One of the peculiarities of Sparta was that the state was headed by two kings at the same time. They ruled together, serving as high priests and military leaders. Each of the kings controlled the activities of the other, which ensured the openness and fairness of government decisions. Subordinate to the kings was a "cabinet of ministers", consisting of five ethers or observers, who exercised general custody of laws and customs. The legislative branch consisted of a council of elders, which was headed by two kings. The most respected people were elected to the council people of Sparta who have overcome the 60-year age barrier. Army of Sparta, despite its relatively modest numbers, was well trained and disciplined. Each warrior was filled with determination to win or die - returning with a loss was unacceptable, and was an indelible shame for the rest of his life. Wives and mothers, sending their husbands and sons to war, solemnly presented them with a shield with the words: “Come back with a shield or on it.” Over time, the militant Spartans captured most of the Peloponnese, significantly expanding the boundaries of their possessions. A clash with Athens was inevitable. The rivalry reached its climax during the Peloponnesian War, and led to the fall of Athens. But the tyranny of the Spartans caused hatred among the inhabitants and mass uprisings, which led to the gradual liberalization of power. The number of specially trained warriors decreased, which allowed the inhabitants of Thebes, after about 30 years of Spartan oppression, to overthrow the power of the invaders.

History of Sparta interesting not only from the point of view of military achievements, but also factors of political and life structure. The courage, dedication and desire for victory of the Spartan warriors were the qualities that made it possible not only to restrain the constant attacks of enemies, but also to expand the boundaries of influence. The warriors of this small state easily defeated armies of thousands and were a clear threat to their enemies. Sparta and its inhabitants, brought up on the principles of restraint and the rule of force, were the antithesis of the educated and pampered rich life Athens, which ultimately led to the clash of these two civilizations.

The Mystery of the Thracian Horseman

The Greek land is covered with many myths and legends. Some of them continue to live today, having gone through a long and thorny path of historical vicissitudes. Back in the 4th century BC. e. In Thrace, the cult of the mysterious Thracian horseman was widespread, who was worshiped not only by local warlike tribes, but also by the Romans and Greeks. Scientists draw significant parallels between the cult of the Thracian horseman, the cult of heroes in Hellas and Celtic myths.

Wine tourism in Greece

Greece offers tourists from all over the world a lot of interesting things for a good holiday, all kinds of entertainment and activities for people of all ages. This country has many wonderful restaurants and bars, not only within the resorts, but also in all major cities of the country. Tour operators offer entertainment and fur tours, beach holidays and trips to holy places.

Galleries in Greece

Museum of the Macedonian Struggle in Thessaloniki

It occupies a building built in 1893 neoclassical style designed by the famous architect Ernst Zillertal. Six halls display exhibitions of social, economic, political and military events that took place in the modern history of Hellas. All these exhibitions allow the visitor to form an overall picture not only of the revolutionary movements in this area, but also of the painful choice of the Balkan inhabitants between tradition and modernism.

Greek standard of beauty

In contrast to democratic Athens, Sparta was a kind of aristocratic republic. In the XII-XI centuries BC. Doric tribes invaded a small area on the Peloponnese peninsula - Laconia. This area was already occupied by the Achaeans. After a fierce struggle, both tribes entered into an alliance and formed a joint community. It was headed by two kings - Dorian and Achaean.
Little Lakonica (300 km") turned out to be too small for the new community. A war began for the conquest of neighboring Messenia. It lasted a whole century and ended with the victory of Sparta.
The lands of Messinia became the common property of the victors. Its population was converted into slaves - helots. Unlike Athens, Sparta remained an agricultural Community throughout its history. Crafts and trade were the work of the non-full-fledged perieks. For free Spartans, both of these professions were strictly prohibited. Their occupation is military service. Free time was devoted to “round dances, feasts, festivals,” hunting, gymnastics.”

The land in Sparta was divided into 10 thousand equal plots - according to the number of full citizens. This number should have remained unchanged. There was no plot - there was no citizenship.

Helots worked the land. They had families, were endowed with a courtyard and land. Their duties were limited to a certain tax.

The entire community and each individual member existed on this tax. The laws of Sparta prescribed simplicity of life and moderation in food. Citizens had the same clothing and weapons. Social equality was emphasized by daily collective meals, for the establishment of which the Spartiate contributed part of his income.

Lycurgus was considered the founder of the Spartan order. He was credited with publishing retr - this is what some of its basic laws were called in Sparta. One of the rules, directed against luxury, demanded that in every house the roof should be made only with an ax, and the doors only with a saw. The legislator expected that no one would want to decorate this simple dwelling with beds on silver legs or luxurious bedspreads.

Money was required to be minted in the form of large and heavy iron coins to prevent its accumulation and make circulation difficult. Gold and silver coins were prohibited.

A significant part of the state’s activities was the education of youth: it developed in young people courage, discipline, and unquestioning submission.

From the age of seven until the age of 20, boys and young men lived outside their families, ate and slept together, and studied together physical exercise and military affairs. They were given rough clothes, forced to walk barefoot in winter and summer, and assigned difficult work. They were poorly fed in order to stimulate intelligence, and were severely punished for detected theft. The slightest discontent was severely suppressed. Any mistake was punished. It even got to the point of real torture disguised as a religious ritual. Speaking briefly and remaining silent was considered an indispensable virtue.

They tried to instill in the young men admiration for the Spartan order and develop in them an arrogant contempt for the helots.

The helots gave half of the harvest to their lords. The rest was their property. In this they differ from slaves in the strict sense of this concept and are closer to serfs. Helots were considered the property of the state in the same way as land.

Every year Sparta declared war on the helots. This was followed by cryptia: young Spartans, armed with daggers, killed every helot they came across on the road, in the forest, in the field.

Unlike other slaves in Greece, helots were the indigenous population of their country. The land they cultivated was once their land, they lived in their houses, in their ancient villages. Managed by their own people.

There were about 200 thousand helots in Sparta, several times more number Spartiates. But each time the uprising they launched failed. Nevertheless, Sparta constantly felt danger threatening her.

"In terms of its political system, Sparta was an aristocratic republic.

From the primitive communal era, the people's assembly, the council of elders and, as already mentioned, two kings survived here.

The first of these bodies - the people's assembly - retained the ancient democratic structure, but over time lost real power.

Voting in the assembly was primitive: citizens dispersed in different sides, after which the majority were determined by eye. The election of officials was carried out by shouting: whoever they shouted for loudest was considered elected.

Gerusia considered and prepared bills and conducted criminal trials.
The kings were members of the Gerusia. As such they were expected to submit to her decisions. The functions of the kings were limited to military, religious and some judicial matters. Over time, a college of ephors appeared in Sparta and acquired decisive influence on the affairs of the state, consisting of five people elected by the people's assembly for a period of one year.
The ephors convened a national assembly, a council of elders, and proposed issues for discussion. They directed all domestic and foreign policy. They ensured the strict implementation of the laws. They could put on trial not only citizens, but also officials. Litigation on civil cases were their direct competence

Question No. 25

Gods of Ancient Greece.

The religion of ancient Greece has two main characteristics:

Polytheism (polytheism). With all the many Greek gods, 12 main ones can be distinguished. The pantheon of pan-Greek gods emerged in the classical era.

Each deity in the Greek pantheon performed strictly defined functions:

Zeus - main god, ruler of the sky, thunderer, personified strength and power

Hera is the wife of Zeus, goddess of marriage, patroness of the family. The image of Hera grew from the image of the cow goddess, the patroness of Mycenae

Poseidon is the brother of Zeus. Poseidon was the ancient sea deity of Pelaponesse. The cult of Poseidon, having absorbed a number of local cults, became the god of the sea and the patron saint of horses

Athena is the goddess of wisdom and just war. Athena is an ancient deity - the patroness of cities and city fortifications. Her other name is Pallas, also an epithet meaning “Shaker of the Spear.” According to classical mythology, Athena acts as a warrior goddess, she was depicted in full armor

Aphrodite - the idealized personification of femininity, the goddess of love and beauty, born from sea foam

Ares - god of war

Artemis - In classical mythology, Artemis appears as the virgin goddess-hunter, usually with her companion - a doe

Apollo in Pelaponesse was considered a shepherd deity. Near Thebes, Apollo Ismenias was revered: this epithet is the name of a local river, which was once deified by the inhabitants. Apollo later became one of the most popular gods in Greece. He is considered the embodiment of the national spirit. The main functions of Apollo: divination of the future, patronage of the sciences and arts, healing, cleansing from all filth, deity of light, correct, orderly world order.

Hermes - the god of eloquence, trade and theft, the messenger of the gods, the guide of the souls of the dead to the kingdom of Hades - the god of the underworld

Hephaestus - god of fire, patron of artisans and especially blacksmiths

Demeter - goddess of fertility, patroness of agriculture

Hestia - goddess hearth and home

Ancient Greek gods lived on the snow-capped Mount Olympus. In addition to the gods, there was a cult of heroes - semi-deities born from the marriage of gods and mortals. Hermes, Theseus, Jason, Orpheus are the heroes of many ancient Greek poems and myths.

The second feature of the ancient Greek religion is anthropomorphism - the humanoid appearance of the gods.

Question No. 26

Confucius and his teachings.

Confucius- ancient thinker and philosopher of China. His teachings had a profound influence on life in China and East Asia, becoming the basis of the philosophical system known as Confucianism. Teaching. Confucianism is often called a religion, it does not have the institution of a church, and questions of theology are not important to it. Confucian ethics is not religious. The ideal of Confucianism is the creation of a harmonious society according to the ancient model, in which every individual has his own function. Confucius formulated Golden Rule ethics: “Do not do to a person what you do not wish for yourself.”