Chapter 5. 1. The coming humiliation of Zion. 2-6. The birth of the Lord of Israel, His properties and significance for the greatness of the people. 7-9. The meaning of the "remnant of Jacob" for other nations. 10-15. Conversion of Israel 1 In Heb. bible art. 1st is included at the end of the previous chapter, as the conclusion of Art. 9-13. But

Categorical meaning of the word

Until now, we have talked only about the direct function of the word in designating this or that object, action or quality, in other words, about the “denotative” and “connotative” meanings of the word. However, what has been said does not exhaust the role that the word plays in reflecting reality and processing information.

The most significant role is played by the second most important function of the word, which L.S. Vygotsky called meaning itself and which we can denote by the term “categorical” or “conceptual” meaning.

By the meaning of a word, which goes beyond the scope of object-relatedness, we understand the ability of a word not only to replace or represent objects, not only to excite close associations, but also to analyze objects, delve deeper into the properties of objects, abstract and generalize their characteristics. The word not only replaces the thing, but also analyzes the thing, introduces this furnace into the system complex connections and relationships. We call the distracting or abstracting, generalizing and analyzing function of a word categorical meaning.

So, each word not only denotes an object, but highlights it essential feature. This is very easy to see by analyzing the root of the word. For example, the word “table” has the root -stl-, and this root is associated with the words “lay”, “lay”, “flooring”. By saying the word “table,” a person highlights its quality: it is something that has the attribute of a flooring on which one can write, dine, or work, but the object denoted by this word must always have the corresponding attribute. The word “watch” does not simply designate a specific object that, for example, lies in front of us; this word indicates that this item has the function of measuring time (“hours”), and if it does not have anything to do with measuring time, then it is not a watch. The word “day” has the root “so-weave” (“to join”, figuratively - the junction of day and night). The word “cow” is related to the Latin word cornu = horn and, in fact, used to mean “horned”, thereby highlighting a characteristic characteristic of a cow.

This analyzing or abstracting function of the word is most easily seen in the recently emerged difficult words. So, “samovar” means an object that cooks itself; “telephone” denotes an object that transmits sound at a distance (tele-); “TV” means an object that makes it possible to see at a distance, etc. In such new words this analyzing function of the word appears especially clearly. This means that each word not only denotes an object, but also produces a much deeper work. It identifies a feature that is essential for this object and analyzes this object. In old words or words borrowed from other languages, we sometimes do not feel this; in new words we see it more clearly. This function of highlighting a feature or abstracting a feature is the most important function of a word. However, this provision is not yet sufficient.

Each word not only denotes a thing, not only highlights its characteristics. It generalizes things, assigns them to a certain category, in other words, it carries a complex intellectual function of generalization. The word "clock" means any clock (tower, table, hand, pocket, gold or silver, square or round). The word "table" means any table (writing, dining, card, square or round, three or four legs, extendable or simple). This means that the word not only highlights a feature, but also generalizes things, classifies them into a certain category, and this generalizing function of the word is one of the most important. Generalizing objects, the word is an instrument of abstraction, and generalization is the most important operation of consciousness. That is why, by calling this or that object a word, we thereby attribute this object to a certain category. This means that the word is not only a means of replacing a thing, a representation; it is also a cell of thinking, because the most important functions of thinking are abstraction and generalization. It should, however, be noted that there is another side to the problem that interests us.

The word is not only an instrument of thinking, but also a means of communication. Any communication - in other words, the transfer of information - necessarily requires that the word not only point to a specific object, but also generalize information about this object. If a person, when saying “clock,” meant, for example, only one specific watch, and the recipient of this word, who does not have the corresponding experience, did not understand the general meaning of this word, he would never be able to convey his thought to his interlocutor. However, the words “clock” and “table” have a generalized meaning, and this is a condition for understanding, a condition for the fact that a person, by naming an object, can convey his thought to another person. Even if this other person represents the named thing differently (for example, the speaker means a pocket watch, and the perceiver means a table or tower clock), still the object assigned to a certain category allows the speaker to convey certain generalized information. This means that by abstracting a sign and generalizing an object, the word becomes an instrument of thinking and a means of communication.

There is, however, an even deeper important function meaning of the word. In a developed language, which is a system of codes, a word not only identifies a feature and not only generalizes a word, assigning it to a certain category, it carries out automatic and invisible work for a person in analyzing an object, conveying to him the experience of generations that has developed in relation to this object in history of society.

Thus, by naming an object, a person analyzes it, and does this not on the basis of specific personal experience, but conveys the experience accumulated in social history in relation to its functions, and thus conveys a system of socially established knowledge about the functions of this object.

Consequently, the word not only denotes an object, but also performs the most complex function of analyzing the object, conveys the experience that was formed in the process historical development generations.

So, denoting an object, a word highlights the corresponding properties in it, puts it in the necessary relationships to other objects, and relates it to known categories.

All this speaks to the fact that the word not only doubles the world, not only ensures the emergence of corresponding ideas, but is a powerful tool for analyzing this world, conveying social experience in relation to the subject, the word takes us beyond the limits of sensory experience, allows us to penetrate into the sphere rational.

All this makes it possible to assert that a word, which has an objective relevance and meaning, is the basis of a system of codes that ensure the transfer of human cognition into a new dimension, allows us to make a leap from the sensory to the rational, i.e. to the possibility of both designating things and operating things in a completely new, “rational” plane. Many researchers have pointed out that “semantic fields” are usually clearly organized and that some of the words included in a given semantic group have greater “accessibility” than others. This “availability” of some words, which facilitates their choice from many others, is explained in part by the context, the familiarity and frequency of occurrence of a given word, the attitude of the individual and his direct experience; however, often “availability” the right word and the greater likelihood of its emergence depends on the lexical connections that characterize many words.

It is easy to see that the word “doctor” inevitably evokes by association another word - “to treat”, the word “broom” - “revenge”, the word “axe” - “chop”, the word “needle” - “sew” and etc. This can be seen even more clearly in words denoting actions (verbs) and words denoting qualities (adjectives). All these factors, indicating that many words are experienced as incomplete and require complementation with other words, are usually spoken of as “word valences,” and it is these valences that largely determine the advantage with which certain words associated with them emerge. words. That is why the “valence” of words turns out to be an important additional factor that determines the choice of the right word.

Conclusions to Chapter 1

All of the above can be summarized in the following points. A word as an element of language always denotes a known thing, sign or relationship, and language consists of a system of complex codes that introduce the designated thing into systems of connections and relationships.

The word is a product of long-term development, during which it is isolated from the sympractical context and becomes independent system codes, which have various means of designating any object and expressing any connections and relationships.

The development of language is a process of emancipation from the sympractical nature and the isolation of the word as a synsemantic system.

The structure of the word is complex. The word has a subject reference, i.e. it denotes an object and evokes a whole “semantic field”, the word has the function of a certain “meaning”, in other words, it identifies characteristics, generalizes characteristics and analyzes the object, assigns it to a certain category and conveys universal human experience. It allows a person to go beyond the limits of direct perception, thereby providing that leap from the sensory to the rational, which is essential for human consciousness.

And finally, the word has “lexical functions”, i.e. included in well-known classes of semantic relations; it has an apparatus that creates the potential need to connect some words with others, providing a transition from single words to their “synsemantic” connections, defining the laws by which it enters into connection with other words. All this is the most important mechanism that makes it possible to turn a word into a main tool. conscious activity person.

It is now clear how fundamental the word is and what a central place it occupies in the formation of human consciousness.

french vocabulary semantic transformation

A verb as a part of speech combines words with the meaning of a procedural feature, or the action of an object. The procedural feature is part-speech, categorical semantics. All verbs have it. The features of this semantics are revealed when comparing verbs with nouns and adjectives.

Noun reading and word form I'm reading lexical meaning refers to the same action, but they call it differently: a noun - as an independent substance, a set of certain properties, and a verb - as the activity of an object (in this case a person), i.e. as a manifestation of a substance, as its sign . In sentences The grass is green under the window And Green grass under the window denotes one situation, which, however, is interpreted differently by the adjective and the verb: the adjective names the characteristic of grass as something given by the nature of things, and the verb depicts “greenness” as a manifestation of the properties of grass, as the realization of its potential.

The designation of a feature, in its existence conditioned by the object to which it is attributed, is a distinctive feature of the verbal meaning. Each verb includes an anaphoric subject seme, that is, it refers to an object as a source of action, which corresponds to the traditional definition: “a verb as a part of speech names the action of an object.” In the personal forms of the verb, this feature is manifested in the fact that the verb ending predetermines the type of the active subject and limits the possibilities of its morphemic expression (writing→I'm writing→you, writes→he, she, it, person). In non-finite forms (infinitive, participle and gerund) - in syntactic connections and syntactic distribution.

The second specific feature of a procedural feature is its characterization in time. This property of verbal meaning is also inextricably linked with the morphological categories of the verb, namely the categories of tense and aspect. The meaning of a procedural feature is categorical because it is formed based on the grammatical structure of the verb.

Just as the meaning of grammatical subjectivity does not coincide with the lexical meaning of the subject, so the categorical semantics of an action (procedural feature) is not identical with the lexical semantics of verbs. Lexically, verbs can name both actions and non-actions: processes (rot), events (marry), state (get sick), relationship (border) etc. But no matter what the verb names, the verbal attribute is given in relation to its source and presupposes a temporal characteristic.

As in nouns, the meaning of the subject or is expressed twice, by the lexical meaning of the stem and grammatical categories (table, book), or depends only on the grammatical form of the word (singing, running, tenderness), so in verbs the meaning of an action can be conveyed both lexically and grammatically (run, saw, wash) or just grammatically (have, belong, consist, exist).

So, a verb as a part of speech denotes a feature of an object, obligatorily characterized in two dimensions:

1) a sign is given as a result of the manifestation of the properties of an object (see school question for verbal predicate: What does – did – will do?),

2) the attribute has temporal parameters (the last property of the verb is sometimes defined by the word “dynamic”: the verb names a dynamic attribute of the object).

This is the semantic feature of the verb.

The verb is rich in morphological categories. Some of them - aspect, voice, mood, tense, person - are found only in the verb. Others - gender, number - are the same for verbs and names. From the morphological side, the verb is specifically characterized by the obligatory inflection. As already noted, there are no unchangeable verbs in the language, although the verb has unchangeable forms.

Morphological categories characterize different verbal word forms differently. Some categories are found in all verbal word forms. They are called constant verb categories. These are the categories of type and pledge. Other categories - mood, tense, person, number, gender - do not have all verbal word forms. They are called non-constant grammatical categories of the verb. Mood, tense, person in the conjugated verb are inextricably linked with the expression of syntactic predication, i.e., the grammatical meaning of the sentence. Therefore, they are also called predicative categories of the verb.

In the grammatical structure of the language, the verb as a part of speech is also formed by word-formation means. It is important that many suffixes form only verb stems: i-t (to whiten), e-t (to turn white), a-t (to groan), well-t (to groan), nich-t (to be lazy) and etc.

The primary syntactic function of a verb is the function of the predicate in a verbal sentence. There is a kind of symmetry between the inflectional forms of the verb (or what is called a finite verb) and their syntactic role. These forms are not other members of the sentence (we are talking about actual verbal use). The subject, object, modifier and circumstance of a verb can only be in the form of an infinitive, participle and gerund, in connection with which they could be called intra-clause syntactic derivatives.

I. general characteristics verb.

Verb as part of speech

Topic 1

MODULE II. VERB AND VERB FORMS

Integrated Objective of Module II

The Russian verb has quite complex system formation, however, in practical courses Insufficient attention is paid to the Russian language. In particular, the school curriculum does not reflect in any way the formation of the present - future simple tense. Everything is limited to dividing verbs into two conjugations and practicing spelling unstressed endings.

The purpose of Module II is to:

· present the system of grammatical forms of the Russian verb as a whole;

· give a comprehensive description of the formation, meaning and use of personal forms of the verb;

· give full description meaning, formation and use of non-conjugated forms of the verb - participles and gerunds;

· teach how to correctly use, structure participial and adverbial phrases and practice punctuation skills;

· introduce you to grammatical dictionaries and reference books on the verb and its forms.

I. General characteristics of the verb

2. Morphological characteristics

3. Syntactic functions

II. System of verb forms. Verb basics.

Sh. Infinitive

2. Morphological characteristics

3. Syntactic functions

IV. Basic verb categories

2. Transitivity and intransitivity

4. Verb classes

5. Conjugation

6. Inclination

8. Face. Impersonal verbs

9. Number and gender.

V. Verb parsing scheme

VI. Spelling of verbs. (on one's own)

Verb as a part of speech it denotes a process. Process is usually understood as various actions associated with labor activity person (build, cook, knit); actions related to intellectual activity (talk, think, decide); actions denoting various processes in nature (it gets dark, it gets light, it gets dark) and actions denoting various states (to sleep, to be sad, to be sick, to suffer).

The meaning of action as a process in a verb is expressed in categories: kind– the relation of action to its internal limit (decide - decide); moods– the relation of action to reality (I decide, I would decide - decide); time– relation of action to moment speeches (I decide - I decided - I will decide); collateral– the relationship of action to subject and object (I solve the problem - the problem is solved by me); faces– the relationship of action to subject (decide - decide - decides). Verb forms have number and gender. The verb changes according to moods, tenses, persons, numbers and genders. This change is called conjugation.

Conjugated verb forms are opposed unconjugated– infinitive, participle and gerund. The infinitive and the gerund have no inflectional forms, and the participle is inflected like an adjective.

The categories of aspect and voice are characteristic of all verbal forms, the categories of mood, tense and person - only conjugated ones (participles have forms only of the present and past tense); the category of number - to all verb forms, except for the infinitive and gerunds, the category of gender - only to the forms of the past tense, subjunctive mood and participles.