Identification of the specifics of artistic translation of stylistic devices from English into Russian
1.2 STYLISTIC DEVICES OF LITERARY SPEECH
translation literary text stylistic
In a work of fiction, the functions of the word are not limited to conveying certain information. Often the word is used for an aesthetic impact on the reader, which becomes possible thanks to artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger its impact on the reader Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. "Business Rhetoric". Publishing center "MarT", 2002.
Often in their works, writers turn not only to the vocabulary of the literary language, but also to outdated dialect words, as well as to vernacular words.
It should be noted that the emotionality of artistic storytelling is very different from the emotionality of conversational and journalistic styles. In a literary text it performs an aesthetic function. This style requires a careful and reasonable selection of linguistic means. A distinctive feature of a literary text is the use of special figures of speech that add brightness and imagery to the narrative.
Artistic and expressive means are very diverse and numerous. These include tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegories, metaphors, metonymies, synecdoche and the like. Also, the means of artistic expression include stylistic figures: epithets, hyperboles, litotes, anaphors, epiphoras, gradations, parallelisms, rhetorical questions, omissions, and the like.
The artistic style is characterized by the use of a large number of tropes (turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense). Ibid.
The trope is based on the transfer of the characteristics of one object or phenomenon to another. The transfer of characteristics in tropes is determined by various reasons, according to which tropes are divided into simple ones - epithets, comparisons; and complex ones - metaphors, allegories, ironies, hyperboles and others.
An epithet (from ancient Greek - “attached”) is a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love dearly”), a noun (“fun noise”), and a numeral (“second life”). Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental system Dictionary stylistic terms. M., 1996.
An epithet is also defined as a figurative or poetic definition, thereby emphasizing its opposition to the logical definition of an object, the task of which is also to concretize the idea of the object.
A comparison (Latin “comparatio”) is a verbal expression in which the idea of the depicted object is concretized by comparing it with another object, such that it contains the signs necessary to concretize the idea in a more concentrated manifestation. For example, “The globe of the earth is chained like a core to a leg” (M. Voloshin), in which the sign of the shape and heaviness of the globe is figuratively revealed in a “concentrated” form. Comparison has a trinomial structure: that which is compared, or the “subject” of comparison (Latin comparandum), that with which it is compared, the “image” (Latin comparatum), that on the basis of which they are compared with each other, a sign, according to to which the comparison takes place (lat. tertіum comparatіonіs).
A group of complex tropes is formed by metaphor, metonymy, as well as irony and sarcasm with their components.
A metaphor (from the Greek “transfer”) is a word whose meaning is transferred to the name of another object associated with the object to which this word usually indicates similarities. This is a figurative expression in which the characteristics of one object or action are transferred to others.
Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) occurs when certain objects are compared with a person or living beings and their properties.
Allegory or allegory (Greek allegorіa) is a method of two-level artistic depiction, which is based on concealing real persons, phenomena and objects under specific artistic images with corresponding associations with the characteristic features of what is being hidden. For example: “When he says his word, he will give you a ruble” (folklore).
An oxymoron or oxymoron is a type of metaphor that involves combining words of opposite meaning, similar to a negative comparison. Ibid.
In general, different forms of grammatical expression of metaphor are possible. Most often it is expressed by a verb and its forms or an adjective (metaphorical epithet), as a result of which, in particular, a metaphor expressed by a noun is perceived better. Losev A.F. The problem of artistic style. Kyiv. 1994
Metonymy is the second large group of complex tropes, which includes figurative expressions in which an object or phenomenon is described by replacing the name of another object or phenomenon associated with the first external or internal connections. For example, an expression such as “the whole theater applauded” contains the metonymy expressed by the word “theater”. This word is used here not in a literal, but in a figurative sense, since when we say this, we mean not that the theater applauded, but the spectators who were in it. At the same time, the concepts of “theater” and “spectators” are in close relationship, acting as close by their very nature, real, and not conditional, as is the case in metaphor. Metonymy is often identified with metaphor, or considered as its variety. However, they should still be distinguished. In this case, metonymy of place, time, space and belonging can be used.
The varieties of metonymy itself are synecdoche, periphrasis, hyperbole and litotes.
Synecdoche is one of the common types of metonymy - a figurative expression based on a quantitative comparison of objects and phenomena; on replacing a part of the whole, one object - their totality.
Periphrasis (Greek “description, retelling”) is a figurative expression in which the name of an object or phenomenon is replaced by a description of its characteristics. For example: instead of A. Pushkin, you can say - the author of the poem “Eugene Onegin”.
Hyperbole (Greek “exaggeration”) is a figurative expression that represents an artistic exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of an object or phenomenon. An example of hyperbole is many catchphrases: “haven’t seen each other for a hundred years,” “fast as lightning,” etc.
Unlike hyperbole, litotes, on the contrary, provides for an artistic reduction of characteristics, for example. At the heart of hyperbole and litotes there is always an element of a certain absurdity, a sharp contrast to common sense.
Irony as a trope is a figurative expression in which a word or group of words takes on a meaning opposite to the main one. And sarcasm is evil, bitter irony.
Ironic or sarcastic intonation reveals itself in a context that is more or less close to other statements of the author, the general tone of which makes it possible to catch in each individual case an ironic intonation that has not been directly identified. Sometimes antiphrasis (opposition), for example, “this Croesus” (relative to the poor man). Less common are expressions that take the form of so-called astheism, i.e. approval in the form of condemnation. Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental system explanatory dictionary of stylistic terms. M., 1996.
Along with tropes, various stylistic figures also provide imagery and expressiveness to artistic storytelling. These means are figures of speech and syntactic structures used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement.
Thus, a technique such as inversion (Latin “rearrangement”, “turning over”) is the arrangement of the members of a sentence in a special order, violating the traditional (direct) order of words in a sentence in order to strengthen and emphasize the expressiveness of speech.
With parcellation, a sentence is divided into parts, in which the content of the utterance is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another.
Non-union is a stylistic figure representing the non-union connection of homogeneous members of a simple sentence or parts of a complex sentence, while polyunion, on the contrary, is an intentional increase in the number of unions in a sentence, as a rule, to connect homogeneous members.
Syntactic parallelism as a stylistic figure is characterized by the identical construction of adjacent sentences or segments of speech.
It is also worth noting such stylistic figures as alliteration and assonance. Their function is to repeat consonant and vowel sounds respectively.
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Bookish, colloquial and vernacular linguistic elements can be correlated with neutral (N), not assigned to any specific sphere of communication and having zero stylistic coloring, which stands out only in comparison with stylistically marked units of language. Yes, word deception is neutral when compared with the book hoax and conversational sell; really when compared with the book truly and conversational for real.
Neutral linguistic means, entering into synonymous relationships with stylistically colored ones, form a stylistic paradigm: (simultaneously simultaneously, together collectively collectively) Paradigms containing all three terms are extremely rare; paradigms with two terms are more common in the language. . The stylistic paradigm is based on the identity or similarity of the basic meaning of its members and the difference in their functional-style and emotional-expressive coloring. So, verb forms jumped And jump (He jumped into the ditch He jumped into the ditch) have a common lexical and grammatical meaning, but differ in functional and stylistic coloring (N and P), as well as the absence of expression in the first form and presence in the second. Words prevail And dominate, included in the same paradigm, coincide in the lexical meaning of “to occupy in some respect the main, leading place, position,” but differ in stylistic coloring (H and K).
Members of the stylistic paradigm (stylistic synonyms) are the main resources of stylistics. For stylistics and speech culture, since they deal with the functioning of language, an expanded understanding of synonymy is relevant: the definition of synonyms based on the interchangeability of linguistic units in the context. It is the possibility of interchangeability that is consistent with one of the basic principles of stylistics and speech culture - the principle of choosing the most successful language means for a given situation. By providing the opportunity to choose, stylistic synonyms allow you to express thoughts in different stylistic tones. Compare: I don't want to read I don't want to read; How did you find out about this? How did you find out about this?; If only I had known earlier! I should have known about this earlier!
Outside the boundaries of stylistic paradigmatics there are many terms (T) and commonly used linguistic units (O), which, unlike neutral ones, do not have stylistic synonyms. Commonly used ones include stylistically unmarked linguistic units used without any restrictions in various fields and communication situations. For example: house, paper, book, white, wide, walk, work, fun, in Russian, mine, ours, all. Terms represent a stylistically closed category of vocabulary and stable combinations assigned to certain areas of communication (scientific and official business).
The basis of the modern Russian literary language is made up of commonly used and neutral linguistic units. They unite all styles into a single language system and act as a background against which stylistically marked means stand out. The latter give the context a certain functional and stylistic shade. However, in context, the nature of the stylistic coloring can change; for example, the assessment of endearment turns into ironic ( Sissy), swear words can sound affectionate (you are my dear robber) etc. Functionally fixed linguistic units in context are capable of acquiring an emotionally expressive coloring. Yes, words praise, ornate, loud, be called, exude, marked in dictionaries as outdated books, in the language of newspapers they take on an ironic connotation.
Depending on the meaning and features of use, the same linguistic unit can have several different stylistic connotations: The hunter shot a hare(H) In winter the hare changes its color(scientific) He rode the bus as a hare(R, disapproved).
Polysemantic words in one meaning (usually literal) are stylistically neutral, and in another (usually figurative) they have a bright emotional and expressive coloring: A dog scratched and whined behind the door(K. Paustovsky) “Why does he need your hare sheepskin coat? He’ll drink it, dog, in the first tavern.”(A. Pushkin), There was an oak tree on the edge of the road(L. Tolstoy) "You, oak, are going to the wrong place"(A. Chekhov). Compare also the use of words fox, bear, rooster, elephant, croak, growl, snort, coo in literal and figurative meanings.
Stylistic means are not only linguistic units that have a constant stylistic connotation, i.e. the ability to express stylistic coloring out of context, but also elements of language that acquire it in specific acts of speech activity, in certain syntagmatic connections. For example, pronouns that do not have a stylistic connotation any And every and context may acquire a disapproving expression: Everyone still has to report. Everyone will be for me make comments! Almost every linguistic unit is capable of acting as a stylistic device, which is achieved by the nature of the organization and the methods of using it in a specific statement. This significantly expands the stylistic resources of the literary language.
According to Galperin, stylistic means are divided into:
1. Phonetic means of expression.
2. Lexical expressive means
3. Syntactic expressive means
Phonetic means of expression include:
1. Onomatopoeia - Using sounds and words to create a more specific idea of what is being said in a given text;
(Selection of sounds [w] and the convergence of two sliding aspirates [X] noise played:
Barely audible, silent the reeds rustle...
(K. Balmont))
2. Phonetic anaphora - repetition of initial sounds;
(Hail! Shine, our sunny commune! (V. Mayakovsky));
3. Phonetic epiphora - repetition of final sounds;
(I am the free wind, I blow forever,
Wave the waves, caress the willows...
In the branches I sigh, sighing, I grow dumb,
I cherish the grass, I cherish the fields (K. Balmont)).
4. Alliteration - repetition of consonants;
(Thunder rumbles, rumbles)
5. Assonance - repetition of vowels;
(It’s boring for us to listen to the autumn blizzard... (A. Nekrasov))
6. Intonation is the rhythmic and melodic structure of speech, depending on the rise and fall of tone during pronunciation. Intonation can be: interrogative, exclamatory, narrative.
Lexical means of expression include:
1. Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative meaning based on the similarity in some respect of two objects or phenomena:
· - by shape (onion, clove of garlic, ring of gardens);
· - by quality (silk eyelashes, keen hearing, dark thoughts);
· - by location (Our carriage is at the rear of the train);
· - based on the similarity of the function performed - functional transfer (car windshield wipers, pen with a gold nib);
2. Antonomasia - a trope expressed in the replacement of a name or name by an indication of some significant feature of an object or its relationship to something;
3. Personification - attributing a sign or action of a living being (person) to objects, natural phenomena, abstract concepts;
(The wind is angry; the sea laughed and cried)
4. Metonymy - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them:
· between the object and the material from which the object is made (Crystal is already on the table);
· between content and containing (Well, eat another plate!);
· between an action and its result, place or object (She received a “five” for the dictation; The morning mail had already been brought);
· between an action and the instrument of this action (The trumpet called for a campaign);
· between a social event, an event and its participants (the Congress decided...);
· between the place and the people in this place (The audience was noisy; the whole house poured out into the street);
· between the emotional state and its cause (My joy is still at school).
5. Figurative comparison - an open, detailed comparison of one fact of reality with another (designated and designating) according to one or more named or unnamed characteristics, carrying Additional information and helping to fully reveal the author’s thoughts, creating a new look at the old, known. Comparison parts are linked using:
· - comparative conjunctions (like, exactly, as if, as if, than, etc.): Immorality, like radiation, constantly kills society (A. Tuleyev);
· - specialized words (similar, similar, reminiscent, etc.): A gypsy girl passed by, looking like a broom (Yu. Olesha);
· - instrumental case forms of the word denoting: Smoke curled in rings above him;
· - forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs: Who in the world is the sweetest, the most ruddy and the whitest? (A. Pushkin).
6. Hyperbole - exaggeration of size, strength, meaning, strengthening of a sign, property to such dimensions that are usually not characteristic of an object, phenomenon;
(I’ve already told you a hundred times; A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper (N. Gogol).)
7. Epithet - an artistic, figurative definition created on the basis of the transfer of meaning by similarity, arising in combination with the word being defined;
(Mirrored surface of water; Poisonous gaze)
8. Oxymoron - a combination of words denoting two contradictory, mutually exclusive concepts, but complementing each other, in order to reflect the complexity and inconsistency of a phenomenon that seems, at first glance, simple, unambiguous, revealing its dialectical essence, resulting in semantic complication and updating the impression;
(...Painfully happy (A. Pushkin); It’s fun for her to be sad (A. Akhmatova))
9. Zeugma is a figure of speech, which consists in the fact that a word that in a sentence forms similar syntactic combinations with other words is used only in one of these combinations, but is omitted in others;
(The nobleman is respected behind the bars of his tower, the merchant is in his shop (Pushkin, “Scenes from the Times of Knights”) - the word honorable is used here only once, the second time is implied).
10. Pun (play on words) - a figure built on the incompatibility of concepts denoted by identically sounding words, or on “the intentional combination in one context of two meanings of the same word.” The pun is based on a break in the connection between words: on the collision of homonyms, paronyms, different meanings of a polysemantic word;
(And they’ll laugh all around. “That’s right,” says the people. “Since he doesn’t want to carry the tram, / it’s clear that he’s out of luck (B. Zakhoder))
11. Allusion - a reference to any mythological, cultural, historical, literary fact without a direct indication of the source, a kind of hidden quotation, which is based on the cultural and historical experience of the speaker and the addressee;
(glory to Herostratus).
Syntactic expressive means include:
1. Antithesis - a figure of speech consisting of a sharp opposition of compared concepts, thoughts, images, built on antonymy and syntactic parallelism, serving to enhance the expressiveness of speech;
(Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness; A smart person will teach, a fool will get bored)
2. Parallelism - a figure of speech consisting in the identity of the syntactic structure of two or more adjacent sections of text;
(In what year - calculate, / In what land - guess. (A. Nekrasov))
3. Gradation - (increase) a figure consisting of two or more significant units placed in increasing intensity;
(I beg you, I beg you, I beg you)
4. Repetition - (repetition, doubling) complete or partial repetition of a root, stem or whole word, descriptive forms, phraseological units. A special stylistic device, for example, to emphasize any details in the description, create expressive coloring;
(A wonderful, clean, courteous cab driver drove him past beautiful, courteous, clean policemen along a beautiful, clean, washed pavement, past beautiful, clean houses... (L. Tolstoy))
5. Inversion - rearrangement of words - components of a sentence, violating their usual order, allowing to focus attention on this component, leading to semantic or emotional emphasis of words.
(But our open bivouac was quiet... (M. Lermontov))
6. Irony - “a trope consisting in the use of a word or expression in the opposite sense to the literal one, for the purpose of ridicule.
(Okle, smart, are you delusional, head? (Krylov) (addressing a donkey))
7. Rhetorical figures are syntactic constructions that enhance not only the expressiveness, but also the logical meaning of speech. These include:
· Rhetorical appeal is that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person: Wind, wind, you are powerful, you drive flocks of clouds... (A. Pushkin); Dreams Dreams! Where is your sweetness? (A. Pushkin).
· A rhetorical question is a figure of speech containing an affirmation or negation in an interrogative form of a statement to which a direct answer is not intended (not expected) (Who is not affected by beauty?).
· Rhetorical exclamation is an expression of the author’s emerging emotional state with the help of intonation, which actively influences the addressee even without special lexical or syntactic means and adds liveliness and ease to the statement, for example, when narrating: Today (Hurray!) I’m going to go to the open air.
· Rhetorical response is a stylistic figure consisting in the fact that the author asks himself questions and answers them himself: So, what are we going to do now? Let's solve this simple problem? No, first we’ll eat, relax, and then get to work
8. Periphrasis - an expression that is a descriptive transfer of the meaning of another expression or word, replacing the one-word name of a person, object, phenomenon with a description of its essential features, indicating characteristic features;
(King of beasts (instead of “lion”), creator of Macbeth (Shakespeare))
9. Silence is a deliberately incomplete statement, the omission of something significant and ambiguous (meaningful omission), with the help of which the unsaid acquires greater significance than if it were expressed openly;
(I'll pass the exams and...)
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. 1997
Galperin I.R. Essays on stylistics, 1998
II.2.3. I. R. Galperin's classification of expressive means and stylistic devices
Russian language. Encyclopedia, 1979: 107):
(Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A., 1976: 271);
The existence of styles in language and speech is ensured by the presence stylistic means.
Stylistic means of language are any linguistic units that have the ability to adequately realize their semantic, emotional, expressive and functionality in the process of servicing various spheres of communication. Stylistically neutral means are linguistic units that do not have a stylistic coloring, and therefore can be used in various spheres and conditions of communication, “without introducing a special stylistic feature into the statements” (M.N. Kozhina).
Stylistically colored(emotionally expressive and functional) means are the main fund of stylistic means of language.
The stylistic coloring of a linguistic unit is those functional and expressive properties additional to the expression of the basic lexical and grammatical meaning that carry stylistic information about the possibility of using this unit in a certain area and situation of communication. Thus, the words “fool”, “rogue”, “sensation”, “Decembrist”, “proton”, “flag”, “future” not only name objects, phenomena, facts, events, etc., but also contain vivid pronounced emotional (fool, shalopay, banner, future) layers and functional indicators (sensation, Decembrist, proton), relating these words to the corresponding sphere of use.
Usually there are two types of stylistic coloring: emotionally expressive and functional.
Emotionally expressive elements of language convey the emotional state of the speaker or his attitude to the subject of speech (the actual expressive means of language) or characterize the speaker himself from a linguistic point of view.
Emotionally expressive shades appear in units of all levels: sun, handkerchief (suffixes of emotional assessment); club (about a person), beats his thumbs (vocabulary, phraseology); “Well, he said it!” (syntactic constructions).
Expressive elements of language should be distinguished from neutral words containing evaluative elements in their meaning; emphasizing character, property, assessment of an action, state, fact (genius, beauty, love, hate). They can become expressive under certain conditions. Compare: she is beautiful; Even if she’s beautiful, it doesn’t bother me.
The expressive properties of a linguistic unit are used in the process of communication consciously, taking into account its content, conditions and circumstances in which it occurs.
Characterization manifests itself regardless of the intentions of the participants in communication: their use of certain words and phrases may indicate their social and professional affiliation, level of culture, erudition, etc.
Functionally colored means of language carry information about the typical areas of use of a linguistic unit. These are:
1. Words, forms of words and phrases, “which are limited in their use only to certain types and forms of verbal communication (D.N. Shmelev). Thus, words like “the above” and phrases like “as is absolutely obvious” are characteristic of scientific and official business speech; nonsense, rubbish - for conversational purposes, etc.
2. Words and constructions that oppose neutral ones and are stylistic synonyms in relation to them: now - now - now; head - head - head.
3. Linguistic means that are outside the literary norm (dialectisms, jargon, etc.).
Thus, colored units of language perform various expressive and stylistic functions, which often intersect, interact with each other, are combined in the process of use, layered on top of each other, complementing each other.
It is obvious that the existence of styles is ensured by the presence in the language stylistic synonyms.
Stylistic synonyms are words, phrases, syntactic constructions that coincide in meaning, but differ in stylistic coloring and, therefore, in the nature of use in different functional styles.
An example of stylistic synonyms at the lexical level is next rows words:
Broadcast - utter - speak - report - interpret.
Examples of stylistic synonyms at the following levels:
Declare – make a statement; open the window - would you open the window; he pushed me - he will push me; he jumped out onto the road - he just jumped out onto the road.
The possibility of replacing one unit with another in the process of forming an utterance, the presence in the language system of different ways of expressing the same content poses the problem of choice for the speaker or writer: which of the options available in the language most fully and accurately corresponds to the tasks and conditions of speech communication.
Therefore, in order to ensure a good level of communication, it is necessary to have a variety of language means in stock (in memory) and update them in accordance with the norms for the design of statements of various stylistic colors.
The stylistic structure of a language and the presence of stylistic synonyms in it create the possibility of selecting linguistic means in real speech communication, taking into account the norms and requirements that have developed in the speech practice of a given people (society).
Thus, the scientific style is characterized by the use of specific linguistic means that most fully realize its stylistic features. The norm in this case excludes the use of colloquial words and phrases, therefore, “if someone in a serious book writes “phagocytes gobble up microbes,” it will be stupid and inappropriate.” (L.V. Shcherba), will lead to a violation of the stylistic norm.
Violation of the stylistic norm leads to stylistic errors.
Stylistic errors – a type of speech defects, which are based on the unsuccessful use of expressive, emotionally charged means of language, the use of foreign-style words and expressions.
Stylistic errors are manifested in the inconsistency of the chosen word or syntactic structure with the conditions of communication, their inappropriate use, which leads to the destruction of the corresponding stylistic structure, to a violation of the stylistic norm. According to L.V. Shcherby, “... any use of words that is inappropriate from a stylistic point of view destroys the stylistic structure of the language, and a language with a destroyed stylistic structure is the same as a completely out of tune musical instrument, with the only difference being that the instrument can be tuned immediately, while the stylistic structure of the language is created over the centuries” .
Stylistic errors include:
1). The use of words of a different functional and stylistic coloring, violation of the stylistic coloring of the text. So, according to K.I. Chukovsky, one of the translators brought to the publishing house the following translation of a romantic fairy tale: “For lack of a red rose, my life will be ruined.” It is obvious that the form “for lack of” with a clearly expressed affiliation with official business (or scientific) vocabulary is unacceptable in a literary text (example by B.N. Golovin);
2). Inappropriate use of emotionally charged words.
Errors of this kind are often found in students’ essays, for example: “Pugachev’s friends betrayed him.” The emotional connotation of the word “friends” makes its use inappropriate in this context.
Knowledge of the stylistic norms of the Russian literary language, the rules for formatting statements of various stylistic colors, as well as deep knowledge of the language itself, which provides the ability to choose, select (and understand) linguistic means in the process of communication, will help to avoid stylistic mistakes. (Quoted from: Ippolitova N.A. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 3. The influence of the form of speech (oral/written) on the stylistic parameters of the text
Undoubtedly form of speech - written or oral- largely determines the choice of linguistic means: many words and syntactic structures clearly bear the imprint of their corresponding use. At the same time, it is quite obvious that the different contents of speech are not equally associated with oral or written transmission. For example, it is difficult to doubt that scientific topics focus on the written form of expression, while everyday topics are the sphere of predominantly oral communication. But it is natural that scientific discussion can also be oral, and everyday topics can be presented in writing. It is interesting to note that, while the transition from written to oral form in such cases does not entail a conscious restructuring of speech (some features inherent specifically oral speech, are perceived as “deviations” from the norm, caused by the inability to prepare a statement in advance), the transition to written form is usually associated with a conscious reorientation to other norms of expression than would be the case in oral communication.
This is quite understandable, since the idea of the norms of a literary language is associated mainly with the written form of its existence, while the properties of colloquial speech - especially those that are not reflected in works of fiction, that is, have not received written fixation - are usually are simply not noticed by those speaking; speakers, having practically mastered “colloquial speech”, in written speech, i.e. when there is a need for a conscious choice of speech means, are guided primarily by language norms that have received written consolidation - even in cases where the content is associated specifically with “everyday colloquial speech” "
But the following is also important. Conversational speech presupposes the direct presence of both the sender of the message and the addressee, and in accordance with this, speech contact, and the communication situation is the same for both. Written works related to scientific or fiction are addressed to an indefinite and, naturally, unknown in advance set of readers. The relationship between individuals (as well as the methods of their actual linguistic expression) changes significantly. But this ratio changes in a certain way in different types of written speech; for example, it is different in artistic and scientific works. Thus, a work of art always, in a certain sense, includes the addressee in the narrative itself. The point, of course, is not in possible (but not at all obligatory) appeals to the reader, but in the very unfolding of the narrative: the reader immediately or not immediately learns about certain actions of the characters, he seems to be involved in guessing the motives of certain actions, the very way of naming the characters (by name, by surname, by position, etc.) puts him in a certain relationship with the people depicted; a work of art presupposes an emotional perception of what is described, that is, a certain “empathy” of the reader, his sympathy or his antipathy for various characters. Scientific texts or official business documents are based, of course, on a completely different relationship between individuals. The relationship between the participants in linguistic communication (real or “constructed”), including the “third party,” i.e., “what is being said,” predetermines the choice of means of expression; it is clear, for example, that a special topic (scientific, industrial -technical) requires special designations, official business relations are regulated using stable formulas, etc. - the “possibility of choice” here is clearly limited. (Quoted from Shmelev D.N. Stylistic differentiation of linguistic means).
Section 4. Types of speech culture
Thus, in the levels of manifestation of speech culture, we see that they depend on the level of the speaker’s general culture. Therefore O.B. Sirotinina actively describes in Lately namely the types of speech culture, and not the levels of speech culture. The researcher explains it this way: “When identifying criteria for classifying a person as a carrier of a particular speech culture, it is necessary to remember that we're talking about specifically about the type of culture, and not about a person’s speech. Speech, of course, reflects the type of speech culture (and it, in turn, reflects the type of general culture), but this is still a reflection, and not a direct correspondence.”
ABOUT. Sirotinin distinguishes full-functional, incompletely functional, average literary, literary-jargon and everyday types of speech culture.
Characterizing carriers full-featured type speech culture, the researcher notes that they are characterized by “maximum complete mastery of all the riches of the Russian language (knowledge of the literary language and other social components of the Russian language, all the features and characteristic features of all functional varieties of the literary language), active use of synonyms, taking into account all the nuances of their meaning and usage, free activation and expedient use of any word from one’s vast vocabulary, including foreign words (but very careful and only expedient).”
Speakers of a full-functional type of speech culture are characterized by:
1. Mastery of all (albeit to varying degrees) functional styles of the literary language, which is manifested not only in knowledge of their features, but also in the ability to construct texts in the style required in a given situation.
2. Compliance with the norms of the literary language (spelling and punctuation, spelling and intonation, stylistic, lexical compatibility norms, etc.).
ABOUT. Sirotinina states with regret that absolutely error-free speech is an extremely rare phenomenon, but a speaker of a fully functional type is characterized by a minimum of violations of norms, their unsystematic nature, and randomness. And, no less important, “a person’s lack of excessive self-confidence, the developed habit of checking himself in everything (regarding the correctness of speech - using dictionaries and reference books).”
That is why the role of a fully functional type of speech culture, despite the relatively small number of its speakers, in the fate of the literary language, the preservation of its existence and its development is very great.
Significantly more people are carriers incompletely functional type, in many ways close to fully functional, but seemingly not realized for one reason or another. Among these reasons, the main one is the lack of effort of the person himself in the pursuit of self-education and self-development. Other reasons are childhood in a low-cultural environment, the lack of a home library, and the low quality of school (and sometimes university) teachers in terms of their speech culture. The nature of a person’s professional activity also plays a role (lack of communicative multi-role, professional need to master the skills of only one form of speech, one functional style, etc.). Part of the acquired knowledge about language and speech is therefore forgotten without application, and what is used is limited by professional and everyday needs and does not require much creative effort.
In general, a dysfunctional type of speech culture can be characterized by the word less: less knowledge, less effort to expand it, lower level of skills, etc. The most striking indicator that distinguishes this type from a fully functional one is the proficiency, in addition to colloquial speech, in only one - a maximum of two functional styles. In the speech of speakers of the incompletely functional type, there is always a noticeable bias towards either the oral or written form of speech, and when using a less familiar form, an actual substitution of its usual form (the constructions of written speech in their oral speech are especially typical, since the written form of speech seems to them to be a priority compared to oral).
The role of people with an incompletely functional type of speech culture, on the one hand, is significantly less than the role of people with a fully functional type, since they cannot serve as a standard of good speech, but, on the other hand, their role is quite significant for the state of the speech culture of the population, since it is precisely This type of speech culture includes the majority of people with higher education, including school teachers, university professors, journalists and writers, whose speech they are guided by. It is the speech of speakers of the incompletely functional type that takes the place of the standard in the eyes (and ears) of many. And there are reasons for this: the authority of higher education, the small number of speakers of the full-functional type (many of them have never heard or read them in their lives), the fairly good speech of such people in their professional field and the relatively small number of deviations from codified norms, which does not allow the population to doubt the standard of their speech.
The most widespread average literary type speech culture, its carriers are primarily people with secondary and incomplete secondary education, but often there are also people with higher, especially narrowly professional (not university classical) education. They are characterized by a very superficial knowledge of the norms of the literary language, and therefore systematic deviations from them in pronunciation (funds A, n Ah ah, pr AND no), shaping ( go, go, read), fashion for foreign words, used inappropriately, with the wrong meaning, and with incorrect pronunciation ( compromise, odious meaning laudably." Indigo - name of the shoe store). Ignorance of the differences between oral and written forms of speech leads such people to focus on “more prestigious” written speech (abuse of book elements, the desire to use participial and participial phrases without taking into account the norms of their use, etc.).
The main reason for the formation of the average literary type of speech culture is low level general culture, lack of desire to expand one’s horizons, inattention to language, starting from school. Hence the complete lack of habit of checking the correctness of one’s speech, an orientation at best towards television speech (as a rule, in far from its best manifestations: television games like “Field of Miracles”, programs like “Full House” and often poorly translated action films). As specially conducted experiments have shown, representatives of the average literary type of culture read special texts and texts of entertainment literature (detectives, science fiction, etc.), and also most often rely on speech in the media as a model, and the model for them is people whose speech is often far from exemplary.
Representatives of the average literary type of culture do not know how or do not want to use euphemisms; as a result, their speech is replete with rude and abusive words. Disrespect for people is often shown, and there are even direct insults. Speech is dominated by clichés; the necessary self-control and preliminary preparation for speech are lacking. Representatives of this type of culture do not have the habit of checking their knowledge in reference books and dictionaries.
The main and unifying feature of the average literary type is incomplete proficiency in the literary language with obvious confidence in complete proficiency in it.
No less dangerous, according to O.B. Sirotinina, and the literary-jargon type that has been emerging since the end of the twentieth century and is intensively propagated in the media. The specificity of this type lies in the conscious imposition of reduced, often even illiterate speech. The desire for a “human language,” which manifested itself as a reaction to the Soviet officialdom of the media, led to the fact that people without any linguistic training came to journalism.
The danger of this type of speech culture lies in its perception by readers of newspapers and magazines and television/radio listeners as a standard of good speech.
Among the poorly educated population, there is another type of speech culture, called everyday by a linguist, since its speakers possess only the skills of everyday, that is, colloquial speech: they are not able to produce either official monologue or written speech, although they can comply with all orthological norms (not make no spelling, spelling, or punctuation errors, etc.).
To the conclusions of O.B. Sirotinina, it is necessary to add that the highest, fully functional type of speech culture is also accompanied by highly developed skills to communicate, as well as create various texts, that is, communicative speech and rhetorical skills.
The most popular and implemented among young people is the average literary type of speech culture, which is also characterized by clipping, abruptness in the perception of the world and understanding of it; the predominance of information rather than persuasion; content and structural incompleteness of texts, abuse of jargon. (Quoted from Savova M.R. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 5. Conversational style of speech
Indeed, at all stages of the development of a literary language, even when overcoming the alienation of the written language in one way or another, when the halo of simply literacy and mastery of a special book language fades, speakers in general never lose the feeling of the difference between “how one can say” and “ how to write."
Everyone is well aware of the often recalled words of Pushkin that “to write only in a spoken language means not to know the language... Can a written language be completely similar to a spoken one? No, just like colloquial can never be exactly like writing. Not just pronouns this And this one but participles in general and many necessary words are usually avoided in conversation. We don't say: a carriage galloping across a bridge, a servant sweeping a room; We are speaking: which gallops, which sweeps etc., replacing the expressive brevity of the participle with a sluggish turn. It does not follow from this that the participle in the Russian language should be destroyed. The richer the language is in expressions and turns of phrase, the better for a skilled writer. The written language is enlivened every minute by expressions born in conversation, but it should not renounce what it has acquired over the centuries.” According to the testimony of many writers, it was sometimes not immediately easy for them to put into writing what had already been said orally. Vandries noted: “The French have a written language and an oral language so far from each other that one can say: French is never spoken as it is written, and rarely written as it is spoken. These two languages differ, in addition to the difference in the choice of words, also in the different arrangement of words. The logical order of words characteristic of a written phrase is always more or less disrupted in an oral phrase.” If we remove the categorical “never” from this statement, then all this can be attributed to the Russian language.
A number of works have convincingly shown that it is advisable to differentiate the concepts of “colloquial speech” and “oral speech”. As N. Yu. Shvedova wrote, “not everything written relates to written speech, just as not everything oral, spoken (and even embodied in conversation) refers to spoken speech.”
The book “Russian Colloquial Speech” notes: “In modern linguistic literature, the term “colloquial speech” is attributed with different contents. The main objects that are called this term can be briefly characterized as follows: 1) any speech manifested in oral form (scientific report, lecture, speech on radio, television, everyday speech, urban vernacular, territorial dialects), 2) any oral speech of the urban population, 3) everyday speech of the urban and rural population, 4) casual speech of native speakers of a literary language.
Already from this brief enumeration it is clear how diverse the objects mentioned above are and how necessary it is to evaluate their linguistic content and delimit them terminologically. We propose to adopt the term oral speech for the first object, for the second - urban (oral) speech, for the third - everyday speech, for the fourth - literary colloquial speech (or: colloquial speech).”
This terminological distinction seems both necessary and justified. Naturally, it does not predetermine either the linguistic characteristics of the identified varieties of the national language, or the possibilities of one or another of their combinations as an object of study. But it is necessary because it allows us to differentiate terminologically what is already differentiated extralinguistically. It seems justified because the linguistic data that have been obtained to date indicate significant linguistic differences between the named types of speech. It is possible that further study of the language in all its varieties will make some adjustments to this distinction.
Thus, within the literary language, a variety such as colloquial speech, delimited from others, can be distinguished.
The cited study notes that “three features of the extra-linguistic situation necessarily entail” its use. This:
“lack of preparedness of the speech act;
ease of speech act;
direct participation of speakers in the speech act.”
Conversational speech thus delineated is contrasted with certain types of both written and spoken speech. Their identification and characteristics are also largely controversial to this day.
O. A. Lapteva correctly notes that “the topic obliges the use of a certain set of speech,” she cites interesting examples to confirm this position: “Here is a phrase from a very informal setting, but on a serious topic: - Well, will you speak out on the questions I raised? Two friends, talking about science on a trolleybus, use expressions like associated with cognition. A father, explaining to his little daughter the structure of the human body, says: Blood enters the body. Wed. also from everyday business speech: Ultrasonic drilling research is currently underway; The process of passing an issue through the printing house. It is further noted that “if two friends talking about a scientific topic in an informal setting show a serious attitude towards the plot they are interpreting, their speech will in many ways approach the written one, paying tribute only to some of the requirements of the oral form.”
O. A. Lapteva cites these observations, trying to prove that the sign of “informality” cannot serve as a characteristic of “oral-colloquial speech”, and thus objects to the definition of “colloquial speech” given by E. A. Zemskaya. However, objections of this kind do not seem justified. After all, the phrases and phrases cited by O. A. Lapteva clearly go back to those types of speech that not only “approach”, but also received their development and consolidation in written form. It would be strange to think that oral speech is impenetrable to such constructions. However, apparently, there is no reason to believe that since they were recorded in oral (and “informal”) speech, their delimitation from other manifestations of oral speech is impossible or unnecessary. In the speech of people who speak a literary language, we will inevitably encounter (and can record in unlimited quantities) phrases for which written texts serve as a model, as well as more or less direct “quotations” from these texts when it comes to scientific truths learned since school or related to the speakers' interests. In the same way, under the pressure of advertising, household instructions, official documents, etc., phrases designed in accordance with the requirements of “business style” constantly penetrate into oral speech. (Quoted from Shmelev D.N. Stylistic differentiation of linguistic means).
Conversational style predominates in oral speech, which depends on the situation and is therefore immediate and unprepared. Conversational vocabulary is characterized by stylistic marking (marking) of a wide semantic spectrum, as well as expressive-emotional assessments. Used mainly in the sphere of oral communication, colloquial vocabulary has the character of ease, reduction and familiarity. The colloquial vocabulary is usually divided into two groups:
1) literary and colloquial vocabulary used in various areas of human communication: hold out"pull back, slow down" doing something. until sometime time", get out"carelessly throw, randomly put in large quantities somewhere." debtor“one who has a debt, debt”;
2) colloquial vocabulary used in everyday life: clean"entirely, completely, without a trace" put on airs"to assume importance, to assume an impressive air, to act arrogantly" daughter"in the address of an elderly or adult person to a young woman, girl, girl."
Colloquial vocabulary is rich in expressive and emotional-evaluative connotations (abusive, joking, ironic, affectionate, family, etc.): modern(approved or disapproved), swallow(in the meaning of address - diminutive-affectionate), toddler(joking).
Colloquial vocabulary is outside the literary language and is used for a reduced, rude and/or rude assessment. Words of colloquial vocabulary have expressive and stylistic connotations (rude, abusive, dismissive, etc.): hustler(simple, disdainful), henchman(simple, contemptuous), net(“lazy, slacker” - simple, joking).
The periphery of the vernacular consists of vulgarisms - abusive and socially obscene words: bitch, creature, sneak, steal
By colloquial-everyday, or simply colloquial, style we usually understand the features and flavor of the oral speech of native speakers of a literary language; at the same time, the conversational style also manifests itself in written form (notes, private letters).
Although the typical sphere of manifestation of the conversational style is the sphere of everyday relations, however, apparently, communication in the professional sphere (but only unprepared, informal and, as a rule, oral) is also characterized by the features inherent in the conversational style.
The general extralinguistic features that determine the formation of this style are: informality and ease of communication; direct participation of speakers in the conversation; unpreparedness of speech, and therefore automaticity; the predominant oral form of communication, and usually dialogical (although an oral monologue is also possible). The most common area of such communication is everyday life. The latter is associated with substantive features and the specific nature of thinking, reflected in the structure of colloquial speech, primarily in its syntactic structure. An emotional, including evaluative, reaction (in dialogue) is typical for this sphere of communication, which is also embodied in the speech features of the conversational style. Among the conditions for the manifestation of colloquial speech are such as the large role of gestures, facial expressions, situation, the nature of the relationship between the interlocutors and a number of other extralinguistic factors that influence the characteristics of speech.
This unique extralinguistic basis of colloquial speech determines its special position among other stylistic and speech varieties of the literary language.
The most common specific stylistic features of the colloquial style of speech are the casual and even familiar nature of speech (and individual linguistic units), deep ellipticality, sensory-concretized (rather than conceptual) nature of speech, its intermittency and inconsistency from a logical point of view, emotional and evaluative information content and affectivity. Typical (but not specific) stylistic features of colloquial speech are idiomaticity and a certain standardization, the personal nature of speech and some others. All this is clearly and consistently reflected in the composition of the linguistic units used in this area and the features of their functioning.
Among the most common linguistic features of colloquial style are the following: greater activity of non-bookish means of language (with a stylistic connotation of colloquiality and familiarity), including the use extraliterary (colloquial) elements at all language levels; incomplete structure of linguistic units (at the phonetic, syntactic, and partly morphological levels); the use of linguistic units of specific meaning at all levels and at the same time the uncharacteristic nature of means with an abstract generalized meaning; weakened syntactic connections between parts of a sentence or their lack of expression, lack of formality; the activity of linguistic means of subjective assessment (in particular, suffixes), evaluative and emotional-expressive units of all levels - from phonetic to syntactic; activity of speech standards and colloquial phraseological units; the presence of occasionalisms; activation of personal forms, words (personal pronouns), constructions.
When characterizing spoken speech by language level, such linguistic functional features are especially highlighted that are not characteristic of other styles or are rarely used in them. Only the dialogical speech of characters in fiction and dramaturgy are close to colloquial speech, but here stylization is manifested and, moreover, the function changes. Some means of colloquial speech are used in journalism.
Let us list the most characteristic linguistic means for colloquial speech, creating the features of its style.
In lexicon and phraseology, such means are the following.
Colloquial vocabulary, including everyday ones, and specific vocabulary are widely used. On the other hand, the composition of abstract vocabulary and book words, as well as terminology and unknown words of foreign language origin is limited. Conversational speech is characterized by the activity of expressive-emotional vocabulary, especially such connotations as familiar, endearing, disapproving, ironic and other evaluative ones - with a decrease in style. The author's neologisms (occasionalisms) are high-frequency.
Polysemy is developed, not only general linguistic, but also individual-occasional (cf. family “languages” and friendly “jargons” of a narrow circle of people). Phraseologically related meanings are activated. Synonymy is rich, and the boundaries of the synonymous field are quite vague; situational synonymy is active, different from general linguistic one.
The possibilities of combining words are wider than the normative general linguistic ones.
Phraseological units are actively used, especially colloquially reduced stylistic ones. The updating of stable phrases, their reinterpretation and contamination are widespread.
The verbal-formative features of colloquial speech are associated primarily with its expressiveness and evaluativeness.
Suffixes of subjective evaluation with meanings of endearment, disapproval, magnification, etc. are active here and are characteristic primarily for this sphere of communication. (mommy, sweetheart, sunshine, child; antics; vulgarity; home; cold etc.), as well as suffixes with a functional connotation of colloquiality, for example in nouns: suffixes -k- (locker room, overnight stay, candle, stove); -ik(knife, rain); -un(talker); -yaga(hard worker); -yatina(dead meat, rotten meat); -sha (for nouns of the same gender as names of professions: doctor, conductor, usher etc.). In addition, suffixless formations are used here (illness, dance) and collocations (lounger, windbag). You can also indicate the most active cases of word formation of adjectives of evaluative meaning: big-eyed, bespectacled, toothy; biting, pugnacious; thin, healthy etc., as well as verbs - prefix-suffix: play naughty, talk, bait, suffixes: jerk, speculate; healthy;
prefix: is-to-lose weight, to-buy etc. In order to enhance expression, doubling words - adjectives, sometimes with additional prefixation - is used (He is such a huge-huge; water black-black; she big-eyed, big-eyed, smart, super-smart), speaking in superlative functions.
In the field of morphology, the frequency of parts of speech is peculiar. In the conversational sphere, there is no predominance of the noun over the verb, which is usual for a language. Even in the “most verbal” artistic speech nouns occur 1.5 times more often than verbs, while in colloquial language verbs occur more often than nouns. Particles of personal pronouns have a significantly increased frequency (several times compared to the indicators for artistic speech). Possessive adjectives are very common here. (team leader) wife, Pushkinskaya Street); but participles and gerunds are almost completely absent. Short adjectives are rarely used, and they are formed from a very limited range of words, as a result of which there is almost no opposition between short and long forms of adjectives in colloquial speech. Among the case formations, variants of the forms of the genitive and prepositional cases in -u (from home, on vacation, no sugar, sugar).
It is typical for colloquial speech to weaken the grammatical meaning of pronouns (So it and there is) and using them to enhance expression (That bespectacled guy of yours came). There is an active tendency towards nondeclension of the first part of compound names (To Ivan Ivanovich) and compound numerals (from two hundred fifty three) and, on the contrary, the declension of some abbreviations (Postcard from VACA received).
In the verb area, we note the variety of specific shades with the meaning of the repetition of action in the past (used to say, walked around, extinguished, prepared) and one-time use (pushed, hit), as well as the activity of expressive forms of moods with a variety of intensifying contextual means, the widespread use of forms of one mood in the meaning of another.
The tense meanings of a verb are surprisingly diverse when using one tense to mean another. The palette of meanings of the present tense is especially rich (the present of speech, the extended present, the historical present), as well as the past and future in the meaning of the present.
The widespread use of verbal interjections turns out to be a specific feature of colloquial speech (jump, skip, walk, bang); in fiction, these interjections are a reflection of colloquial speech.
Particularly characteristic is the syntax of colloquial speech. It is here that its ellipticality, as well as emotionality and expressiveness, are most clearly manifested. This is also expressed in the high frequency of different semantic shades of infinitive and incomplete sentences (Well, that's enough!; Great!; Be silent!), and in the nature of the incompleteness of the latter (“omission” not only and not so much of the secondary, but of the main members: Tea? - Half a cup for me) and in a large percentage of interrogative and incentive sentences. A specific feature is the actual intonation, emotional and expressive transmission of meanings (affirmative, negative and others).
Only the conversational sphere is characterized by the use of special words and corresponding sentences expressing agreement or disagreement (Yes; No; Of course).
Due to the unpreparedness and associative nature of colloquial speech, it is characterized by the restructuring of phrases on the go (Telephone- it is his), parcellation (It’s scary to leave. But it’s necessary; We had a good rest. Just not enough) and a generally broken structure with interruptions in intonation. Activity of connecting structures of different types and methods of expression (in particular, with introductory words and particles: yes and. and here, perhaps, that’s not all, by the way).
Colloquial speech is characterized by a weakened meaning of introductory words, their redundancy, and in general (with a large number of introductory words with the meaning of indicating the relationship between parts of the statement) their use in a modified function.
The order of words is freer than in book and written speech (postposition of conjunctions, transferring them from subordinate clauses to the main clause, etc.)
There is activity in interjection phrases (Oh?; Is that so?; Fathers!; Here you go!), predicative phrases reinforced with emotionally expressive particles (What a strength!; That’s what he said!), and phrases with constant structural elements (Wow...; There is...; Same for me...; Why not...; That's it, that...).
In complex sentences, composition clearly predominates over subordination, and in complex sentences the composition of subordinate clauses is very uniform; Moreover, such a common form of them as attributives is not widely used in colloquial speech. The limited vocabulary content of subordinate clauses is also characteristic (as a manifestation of the standardization of speech). Explanatory clauses are added to very few verbs: speak, say, think, hear etc., for example: I Don't know, who you had; I I do not speak, what is wrong. Non-union connections are also characteristic of colloquial speech. complex sentence. The speed of speech reactions explains the usually short sentences here. The depth of phrases, as a rule, does not exceed 7 ± 2 word uses.
In general, colloquial speech is characterized by a variety of rhythmic, tempo and intonation patterns of speech and a wealth of emotional and expressive intonations. In connection with these general features of spoken speech, there is ellipticity at the phonetic level: an acceleration of tempo, leading to increased reduction of vowels, assimilation of consonants, and generally incomplete pronunciation of sounds and syllables. It is typical, for example, that spelling norm oral speech turns out to be Hello, Van Vanych, Mary Vanna, not clear Hello, Ivan Ivanovich, Maria Ivanovna(the latter would be artificial).
Examples of emotionality and expressiveness, as well as the ellipticality of colloquial speech and the linguistic embodiment of its other stylistic features, could be replenished, but those given, I think, are sufficient for general characteristics this functional style.
So, the colloquial style, possessing, to a greater extent than other styles, the originality of linguistic means that go beyond the boundaries of the codified literary language, occupies a special place in the system of modern functional styles. (Quoted from: M.N. Kozhina. Characteristics of functional styles of the Russian language / Stylistics of the Russian language).
Conversational style. It is used in casual conversations, usually with familiar people in the sphere of everyday relationships. Implements communication function. The spontaneity of communication, the peculiarities of the content of conversations, the need for a quick reaction (often evaluative) to the interlocutor’s message, the possibility of using non-verbal methods of communication (intonation, stress, rate of speech), extra-linguistic factors (facial expressions, gestures), the peculiarities of the situation, the nature of the interlocutor’s relationship are determined by the presenters style features conversational statements. This is ease, freedom in the choice of words and expressions, manifestation of one’s attitude to what the interlocutor is communicating, and emotionality.
The following linguistic features are inherent in colloquial speech: the activity of colloquial (non-bookish) means of language, up to vernacular and familiar; use of evaluative, emotional and expressive means; incomplete structural design of linguistic units; weakened syntactic connections between parts of a sentence; activity of speech standards and colloquial phraseological units.
Conversational style is contrasted with book styles. This opposition is based, first of all, on differences in the characteristics of the sphere of communication in which functional styles are realized: the sphere of individual consciousness and the informal setting give rise to a conversational style; the sphere of public consciousness and the official nature of communication - book styles.
In addition, using the means of colloquial speech, the communication function is usually realized, and the message function is realized through the means of book styles.
All these circumstances lead to the fact that the colloquial style is perceived as a rather isolated, homogeneous system, opposed to the system of book styles. (Quoted from: Ippolitova N.A. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 6. Scientific style of speech
N and y This vocabulary serves the field of science and is characterized by seemingly impersonal information about nature, man and society. The style-distinctive features of scientific vocabulary are: the terminology of the semantics of the word, the subject matter of scientific concepts, the logicalization of the meaning of a scientific concept, the absence of emotionally expressive connotations and words of a colloquial nature. Scientific vocabulary includes:
1) terminology systems as paradigms of branches of specialized knowledge: exchange rate "fin. sale price of securities " », brand "fin. monetary unit of Germany and Finland " », bonds "fin. credit documents giving the right to receive a sum of money " »;
2) abstract names naming abstract concepts: analogy, being, capacity, hypothesis, binomial, classify, condition, believe, realize;
3) modal words expressing the reliability/unreliability of the message: certainly, probably, possibly, undoubtedly;
4) words that determine the “order” of expressing thoughts: firstly, secondly, in addition, thus and others (Quoted from: Modern Russian language: Textbook for students of universities / P.A. Lekant, E.I. Dibrova, L.L. Kasatkin, etc.; Edited by P.A. Lekant).
The sphere of scientific communication is distinguished by the fact that it pursues the goals of the most accurate, logical, and unambiguous expression of thought. The main form of thinking in the field of science is the concept, and the linguistic embodiment of the dynamics of thinking is expressed in judgments and conclusions, following one after another in a strict logical sequence. The thought here is strictly reasoned, the course of logical reasoning is especially emphasized. Analysis and synthesis are closely interrelated, and the first, in fact, is necessary to obtain the second, because the purpose of science is to reveal patterns. Hence the generalized and abstract nature of thinking. It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the nature and “path” of thinking in the very process of scientific knowledge and, on the other, the embodiment of the results of thinking in scientific writings. In the texts, additional, in comparison with the research stage, purely “design” tasks appear (method of proof, degree of polemic, descriptiveness or reasoning, degree of popularization). In this regard, the stages of internal and external speech are not identical in their speech texture, in linguistic embodiment. There is no fundamental difference between the named stages of thinking and their linguistic embodiment. However, it should be remembered that the final crystallization of thinking (scientific propositions) occurs precisely in external, and not in internal, speech.
The most common specific features of the scientific style, resulting from abstractness (conceptuality) and strict logical thinking, are
abstractly - generality and emphasizing the logical nature of the presentation. They determine in their turn more frequent (secondary) stylistic features, as well as the specificity of the speech systematicity of the scientific style, the meanings and stylistic colors of the linguistic units used here and, in addition, their frequency. Very typical for scientific speech (but not primary, but derivative) are semantic accuracy (unambiguousness), without " imaginativeness, hidden emotionality, objectivity of presentation, some dryness and severity, which do not, however, exclude a kind of expressiveness. The degree of manifestation of these traits may vary depending on the genre, topic, form and situation of communication, the author’s personality and other factors.
How are the main stylistic features of scientific speech achieved and how are they expressed?
Abstraction and generality certainly permeate every scientific text. This is reflected primarily in the fact that almost every word appears here as a designation of a general concept or an abstract object. Wed. suggestions: Chemistry deals only with homogeneous bodies; The possibility of quantitative determination is based on the following position; Chemical formulas are used to express substitution. Here, each of the words expresses a general concept or abstract phenomenon (chemistry in general, bodies in general, etc.). Even where there is some specific specification (“the following position”, “chemical formulas”), the phrase still expresses a very abstract concept.
It is characteristic that even specific vocabulary here appears to denote general concepts (cf.: Chemist should pay attention to..., that is, a chemist in general, every chemist; Birch tolerates frost well; here is the word birch denotes not a single object, a tree, but a species of tree, i.e., it again expresses a general concept).
This abstract and generalized nature of speech is emphasized by special lexical units (usually, usually, regularly, always, every, everyone), and grammatical means: indefinite personal sentences, passive constructions (For this take in laboratories a funnel; At the end of the experiment counted down acid residue and so on.).
Of course, the generality and abstractness of scientific speech does not mean that imagery is in principle contraindicated for it. Analysis of specific objects and phenomena is an integral part of scientific knowledge. Verbal images help express conceptual thought. The use of figurative means depends to a certain extent on the author’s personality and field of knowledge. Thus, some humanities (literary criticism, history, philosophy), descriptive natural sciences (geology, chemistry, geography and some others) usually use verbal imagery to a greater extent than the so-called exact sciences. The latter should be distinguished from metaphorical terms that are well-established in science and, as a rule, have faded imagery. These include, for example, in biology - tongue, pestle, umbrella, in technology - clutch, caterpillar, paw, shoulder, trunk, neck, in geography - sole(mountains), ridge and so on.
Of all the figurative means, the most consonant with the style of scientific speech is comparison, since it acts as one of the forms logical thinking. Comparisons are widely used to explain the phenomena being characterized, for illustration, without specifically pursuing expressive purposes. In these cases, the comparisons are accurate and often contain already known terms: The radical C 14 H 14 enters, like nitrogen, in connection with three eq. hydrogen(N.I. Zinin). In other cases, while serving an explanatory function, comparisons at the same time have vivid imagery and clarity: The tide raises the waves like mountains (D. Sokolov); The ice floes stood like high hills (F. P. Wrangel). Sometimes comparisons of scientific speech are distinguished by particularly vivid imagery and originality: Their branchy horns(deer. - M.K. swayed, like huge strips of dry bushes (F. P. Wrangel); Along the Bukhtarma River and around Lake Kolyvan... you can see granite mountains, as if made from bread (D. Sokolov).
You can also give examples of interesting non-terminological metaphors: ...two army, oak and spruce have been standing opposite each other for thousands of years(G.F. Morozov); Spruce... passed under the canopy of a pine tree, thick in close formation (M. E. Tkachenko); Pine sheltered the first settlers ate(He is the same); cheerful look teenagers(G.F. Morozov).
The use of means of verbal imagery in scientific speech, in addition to their optionality and relatively rare use, is fundamentally different from the use of these means in fiction: 1) figurative means, in particular metaphors, have in scientific speeches, as a rule, are only two-dimensional, but not multi-dimensional in nature; 2) metaphors in scientific speech have a narrow contextual meaning and do not have the systemic character that is characteristic of them in artistic speech; 3) the functions of figurative means in scientific and artistic speech are fundamentally different. In a work of art, metaphor is one of the important elements in the general system of images, organically united by a common theme and idea; in scientific speech, figurative means act in an auxiliary role - for explanation, popularization, concretization - and therefore are a kind of inlay, not organically connected with a common speech system.
All this is reflected in the actual linguistic nature of metaphors and other figurative means and is expressed, in particular, in the fact that metaphors in scientific speech usually have a general linguistic character and are not necessarily individual; comparisons include terms, etc. In addition, the speech imagery of a scientific text has such differences from the aesthetic imagery of fiction that stem from the difference in the very essence of the corresponding forms of knowledge and are as follows. The image in scientific speech is usually schematized
generalized, deprived of those individually unique properties-signs that are inherent in it in a work of art. For all its imagery, metaphor, for example, in scientific speech does not denote a single (albeit at the same time typified) object, but a general property, type, etc.
The abstraction and generality of scientific speech are manifested in the peculiarities of the functioning of various grammatical, in particular morphological, units, which is revealed in the choice of categories and forms (as well as the degree of their frequency in the text), and especially in the meanings of these units.
When using the verb a, this is expressed, as indicated, in the widespread use of the present timelessly " th (with a qualitative, indicative meaning), which is consistent with the need to characterize the properties and characteristics of the objects and phenomena being studied; Chloride slow decomposes (N.D. Zelinsky); Carbon amounts to... the most important part of the plant(K. A. Timiryazev).
In connection with the manifestation of the same stylistic feature, scientific speech turns out to be characterized by verbal forms with weakened lexical and grammatical meanings of time, person, number, as evidenced by the synonymy of sentence structures, cf., for example, the following parallels: distillation produce- distillation produced; we can withdraw conclusion - can be deduced conclusion - withdraw conclusion. This phenomenon is reflected in the syntax - in the presence of a kind of empty personal sentences that can be replaced by impersonal ones, and in general their omission (cf. synonymous expressions: We know, that there is no method... - It is known that there is no method... - There is no method...).
IN scientific literature, especially in those where mathematical methods are used, the form of the future tense is essentially devoid of its usual grammatical meaning and, as can be seen from the examples, is grammatically weakened (will = is, is).
The abstraction, generality and specific speech systematicity of the scientific style also determine the fact that the forms of verbs of the present tense - against the background of the past (the so-called present of a living representation) - in scientific speech, however, do not receive the imagery and concretization of meanings that are usually characteristic of them. In scientific speech, they emphasize the regularity of the phenomenon, which is also enhanced by the components of the context. Actually, the present of living representation is completely absent here, and instead of it, in similar contextual conditions, cases similar to the following are observed: Frig and Gitz successfully applied conventional physiological methods to their study... When certain areas of the cerebral cortex are irritated, contractions regularly occur...(I.P. Pavlov).
Abstraction and generalization are manifested in scientific speech and in the peculiarities of use and meanings of the categories in and d a of the verb. The widely used forms here are imperfect form, as comparatively more abstractly generalized in meaning than perfective forms: the former make up about 80% in scientific speech. (In artistic speech they make up only 55%).
It is characteristic that those relatively few verbs of the perfect form that are found in scientific speech are often used here in stable repeated phrases in the form of the future tense, synonymous with the timeless present; hence the weakening of the specific meaning: let's prove that...; consider...; the equation will take the form etc. In most of these cases, replacement with an imperfective form is possible, which is actually observed in scientific texts.
More than in other styles, the number of imperfective verbs is devoid of paired perfective verbs: Acid corrodes...,...Metals are easy are being cut. Water boils vegetables and etc. This is due to the qualitative meanings of verbs.
The use of personal verbs and personal pronouns reveals the same pattern: scientific speech is characterized by a predominance of the most abstractly generalized units in their meaning. Thus, 2nd person forms and pronouns are practically not used you you as the most specific; the percentage of 1st person forms is insignificant. numbers. In the vast majority of cases, the most abstract forms of the 3rd person and pronouns are used he she it. But even more revealing are the features of the use of these linguistic units. In addition to the well-known so-called copyright We, used “for modesty” and for the sake of objectivity of presentation, the pronoun We together with the personal form of the verb, it very often expresses meanings of varying degrees and nature of abstract generality. These include "We totality" (me and the audience; you and me): If we will exclude..., then we get...(A. G. Stoletov); ...We will designate in...(A. G. Stoletov); We are coming to the result...(K. A. Timiryazev); We we can conclude...(S.I. Vavilov). It is characteristic that in all these cases, along with the possible substitution “you and me,” it is no less likely that a pronoun will be omitted when a personal construction is replaced by an impersonal or infinitive one: you can come to a result; can be concluded; if excluded; if we designate etc. Thus, the meaning of the face turns out to be very weakened, uncertain, and therefore more abstract than usual. This weakening of meaning is even more pronounced in other cases: Long sound we call musical(A. G. Stoletov) - called musical; So we have the theorem(N.A. Umov) - there is a theorem etc. The same tendency appears in cases where the pronoun We and the verbal form of the 1st person plural presupposes every person, a person in general, that is, it acquires a very generalized meaning (in these cases it is also possible to replace these expressions with impersonal ones): Everything we see is clear we distinguish either as a substance or as a phenomenon(D.I. Mendeleev); Irritations... parts of the retina We Can distinguish apart(A. G. Stoletov).
Very often in scientific speech, verbs are used in an indefinite personal meaning, close to a generalized personal one; This largely depends on the lexical semantics of verbs. In this case, anyone, everyone, everyone can be thought of as an agent, or he is completely vague and unknown and cannot even be assumed at all (based on the meaning of the verb). Examples: For such active centers accepted atoms(N.D. Zelinsky); Laws are usually are formulated... (A. N. Reformatsky); Bromine get like chlorine(A. N. Reformatsky), etc.
The category of nouns also often has a weakened grammatical meaning, since the names of abstract concepts cannot, in principle, be represented as countable “objects”; they are incompatible with the idea of number, counting . Wed: Integrity all parts of this mechanism...(I.M. Sechenov); Education water at burning wax...(A.M. Butlerov), etc.
The singular number of nouns denoting individual countable objects in scientific speech usually serves to express a generalized concept or an indivisible totality and integrity: Birch belongs to light-loving breeds(G.F. Morozov); More often elk found in... cutting areas(V.N. Milkov); Further inland... dominate oak and hornbeam (L.S. Berg). It is no coincidence that the names of plants, animals, etc. are used in the texts natural sciences almost exclusively in the singular form indicating unity, totality, indivisibility. This is explained by the fact that the plural forms of such nouns are specific in meaning: they indicate individual countable objects (birches, elk, oaks, etc.). The latter is incompatible with the expression general concept and does not correspond to the general stylistic features of scientific speech.
The meaning of the singular number of nouns, close to distributive, in scientific speech also acquires a very generalized character: The hand is not only an organ of labor(V.L. Komarov); Ear analyzes any sound(A. G. Stoletov).
But scientific speech knows plural forms that are usually unusual for the Russian language in other spheres of communication. numbers from abstract and real nouns: heat, length, frequency, activity, value, minimums, maximums, climates, equilibrium, concentration, fauna, flora, magnitude, state, active oxygen, gunpowder, pine needles, clay, oil, steel, tobacco, wormwood etc.
The abstractness and generality of scientific speech are expressed in the increased use of neuter words. These are nouns with abstract meaning: movement, quantity, phenomenon, relation, action, property, formation, change, distribution, state, influence, meaning, definition etc. Among masculine and feminine nouns, a large place belongs to abstract vocabulary: case, experience, process, question, volume, character, period, experience, method, result and etc.; part, energy, form, force, size, mass, activity, possibility, need etc. Abstract nouns in scientific speech, as a rule, are not metaphorized and act as terms.
Generalization and abstraction do not imply, however, that scientific speech should be completely unemotional and unexpressive. Let us recall the provisions that “without “human emotions” there has never been, is not and cannot be human quest truth" that "it is impossible to "study the actual state of affairs" without qualifying without appreciating it...” Scientific speech, like any other literary speech, should be bright, moderately expressive, emotional and figurative, not faceless. Otherwise, she does not achieve her goal, in any case, her communicative qualities suffer.
Scientific works of a polemical nature (for example, discussion articles and parts of works containing polemics), popular science literature are particularly expressive and emotional; works that are distinguished by the particular novelty of their topics and problems; parts of works of a historical and bibliographic nature (“history of the issue”) and various kinds of “deviations” from the main presentation. The most restrained are descriptive works and descriptive parts of scientific essays, educational literature, information articles and some other genres. The degree of expressiveness and emotionality of scientific speech largely depends on the author’s personality, partly on the field of science and genre.
Stylistic devices and expressive means
Stylistic techniques and means of expression
In linguistics, the following terms are often used: expressive means of language, expressive means of language, stylistic means, stylistic devices. These terms are often used synonymously, but sometimes they have different meanings.
It is not easy to draw a clear line between expressive means of language and stylistic techniques of language, although there are still differences between them.
Under expressive means of language we will understand such morphological, syntactic and word-formation forms of language that serve to emotionally or logically strengthen speech. These forms of language have been worked out by social practice, understood from the point of view of their functional purpose and recorded in grammars and dictionaries. Their use is gradually being normalized. Rules for using such expressive means of language are developed.
What should be understood by stylistic device? Before answering this question, let's try to determine characteristic features this concept. Stylistic device stands out and thereby contrasts with the means of expression by conscious literary processing of the linguistic fact. This conscious literary processing of language facts, including those that we called expressive means of language, has its own history. Even A. A. Potebnya wrote: “Starting from the ancient Greeks and Romans and with a few exceptions to our time, the definition of a verbal figure in general (without distinguishing between a trope and a figure) (i.e., what is included in the concept of stylistic devices ) cannot do without contrasting simple speech, used in its own, natural, original meaning, and decorated, figurative speech.” 1
Conscious processing of language facts was often understood as a deviation from commonly used norms of linguistic communication. So A. Ben writes: “A figure of speech is a deviation from the usual way of expressing itself in order to enhance the impression.” 2
In this regard, it is interesting to quote the following statement by Vandries: “Artistic style is always a reaction against a common language; to a certain extent, it is an argot, a literary argot, which can have various varieties...”
Sainsbury expresses a similar thought: “The true secret of style lies in breaking or neglecting the rules by which phrases, sentences and paragraphs are constructed.” (Our translation. I. G)
It goes without saying that the essence of a stylistic device cannot be a deviation from commonly used norms, since in this case the stylistic device would actually be opposed to a linguistic norm. In fact, stylistic devices use the norm of the language, but in the process of using it they take the most characteristic features of this norm, condense it, generalize it and typify it. Consequently, a stylistic device is a generalized
1 Potebnya A. A. From notes on the theory of literature. Kharkov, 1905, p. 201.
2 Ben A. Stylistics and theory of oral and written speech M., 1886, p. 8
typified reproduction of neutral and expressive facts of language in various literary styles of speech. Let's explain this with examples.
There is a stylistic device known as maxims. The essence of this technique is to reproduce the characteristic, typical features of a folk proverb, in particular its structural and semantic characteristics. A statement - a maxim has rhythm, rhyme, and sometimes alliteration; a maxim is figurative and epigrammatic, that is, it expresses some generalized thought in a condensed form.
Thus, the maxim and the proverb are correlated with each other as general and individual. This individual is based on the general, takes what is most characteristic of this general, and on this basis a certain stylistic device is created.
A stylistic device, being a generalization, typification, condensation of means that objectively exist in a language, is not a naturalistic reproduction of these means, but transforms them qualitatively. So, for example, improperly direct speech (see below) as a stylistic device is a generalization and typification of the characteristic features of inner speech. However, this technique qualitatively transforms inner speech. This latter, as is known, does not have a communicative function; improperly direct (depicted) speech has this function.
It is necessary to distinguish between the use of language facts (both neutral and expressive) for stylistic purposes and an already crystallized stylistic device. Not every stylistic use of linguistic means creates a stylistic device. So, for example, in the above examples from Norris’s novel, the author, in order to create the desired effect, repeats the words I and you. But this repetition, possible in the mouths of the novel’s heroes, only reproduces their emotional state.
In other words, in emotionally excited speech, the repetition of words, expressing a certain mental state of the speaker, is not intended to have any effect. The repetition of words in the author’s speech is not a consequence of this mental state speaker and aims to achieve a certain stylistic effect. This is a stylistic means of emotional
Stylistics deals with some special concepts that have nothing to do with a purely linguistic interpretation of linguistic categories.
Expressive means are phonetic means, grammatical forms, morphological forms, means of word formation, lexical, phraseological and syntactic forms that function in the language to emotionally intensify the utterance.
Expressive means are used to enhance the expressiveness of the statement; they are not associated with figurative meanings of the word.
Expressive means = repetitions, parallelisms, antitheses, phonetic devices, use of archaisms, neologisms, etc.
A stylistic device is the purposeful use of linguistic phenomena, including expressive means.
Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability compared to stylistic devices.
Stylistics deals with expressive means and stylistic devices, their nature, functions, classification and possible interpretation.
Classification of expressive means (Urve Lehtsaalu):
lexical group (poetic words, archaisms, dialectisms, neologisms)
phonetic group (rhythm, euphony (euphony)
grammatical group (inversion, elliptical sentences, repetition, exclamation)
Epithet- a definition in a word expressing the author’s perception:
silvery laugh silvery laugh
a thrilling tale
a sharp smile
The epithet always has an emotional connotation. It characterizes an object in a certain artistic way and reveals its features.
a wooden table (wooden table) - only a description, expressed in an indication of the material from which the table is made;
a penetrating look (penetrating look) - epithet.
Comparison (simile)- a means of likening one object to another according to some characteristic in order to establish similarities or differences between them.
The boy seems to be as clever as his mother. The boy seems to be as smart as his mother.
Irony- a stylistic device where the content of a statement carries a meaning different from the direct meaning of this statement. the main objective irony is to evoke a humorous attitude in the reader towards the described facts and phenomena.
She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. She turned around with a sweet alligator smile.
But irony is not always funny; it can be cruel and offensive.
How clever you are! You're so clever! (Implies the opposite meaning - stupid.)
Hyperbole- exaggeration aimed at enhancing the meaning and emotionality of a statement.
I have told you it a thousand times. I've told you this a thousand times.
Litotes/Understatement (litotes/
understatement)
- understatement of the size or significance of an object. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole.
a cat-sized horse
Her face isn't a bad one. She has a good face (instead of “good” or “beautiful”).
Periphrase/Paraphrase/Periphrase (periphrasis)- indirect expression of one concept with the help of another, its mention by not direct naming, but description.
The big man upstairs hears your prayers. The big man above hears your prayers (by "big man" we mean God).
Euphemism- a neutral expressive device used to replace uncultured and rude words in speech with softer ones.
toilet → lavatory/loo toilet → restroom
Oxymoron- creating a contradiction by combining words that have opposite meanings. The suffering was sweet! The suffering was sweet!
Zeugma- omitting repeated words in similar syntactic constructions to achieve a humorous effect.
She lost her bag and mind. She lost her bag and her mind.
Metaphor- transfer of the name and properties of one object to another based on their similarity.
floods of tears
a storm of indignation
a shadow of a smile
pancake/ball → the sun
Metonymy- renaming; replacing one word with another.
Note: Metonymy must be distinguished from metaphor. Metonymy is based on contiguity, on the association of objects. Metaphor is based on similarity.
Examples of metonymy:
The hall applauded. The hall welcomed us (by “hall” we mean not the room, but the spectators in the hall).
The bucket has spilled. The bucket splashed (not the bucket itself, but the water in it).
Synecdoche- a special case of metonymy; naming a whole through its part and vice versa.
The buyer chooses the quality products. The buyer selects quality goods (by “buyer” we mean all buyers in general).
Antonomasia- a type of metonymy. Instead of own name a descriptive expression is given.
The Iron Lady The Iron Lady
Casanova Casanova
Mr. All-Know
Inversion- a complete or partial change in the direct order of words in a sentence. Inversion imposes logical tension and creates emotional coloring.
Rude am I in my speech. I am rude in my speech.
Repetition- an expressive means used by the speaker in a state of emotional tension, stress. Expressed in the repetition of semantic words.
Stop! Don"t tell me! I don"t want to hear this! I don"t want to hear what you"ve come for. Stop it! Do not tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you came back for.
Anadiplosis- usage last words the previous sentence as the starting words of the next.
I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet. I climbed the tower, and the steps shook. And the steps shook under my feet.
Epiphora- using the same word or group of words at the end of each of several sentences.
Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Strength was given to me by fate. Luck was given to me by fate. And failure was given to me by fate. Everything in the world is decided by fate.
Anaphora/Unity of Birth (anaphora)- repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each speech passage.
What's the hammer? What the chain? Whose hammer was it, whose chains,
In what furnace was your brain? To seal your dreams?
What the anvil? What dread grasp Who took up your swift swing,
Dare its deadly terrors clasp? Got mortal fear?
("The Tiger" by William Blake; Translation by Balmont)
Polysyndeton/Multi-Union (polysyndeton)- a deliberate increase in the number of conjunctions in a sentence, usually between homogeneous members. This stylistic device emphasizes the significance of each word and enhances the expressiveness of speech.
I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep. I will either go to a party or study for an exam or watch TV or go to bed.
Antithesis/contraposition- comparison of images and concepts that are opposite in meaning or opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the hero or author.
Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty. Youth is beautiful, old age is lonely, youth is fiery, old age is frosty.
Important: Antithesis and antithesis are two different concepts, but in English language are denoted by the same word antithesis [æn"t???s?s]. A thesis is a judgment put forward by a person, which he proves in some reasoning, and an antithesis is a judgment opposite to the thesis.
Ellipsis- deliberate omission of words that do not affect the meaning of the statement.
Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends. Some people go to priests, others to poetry, I go to friends.
Aposiopesis (aposiopesis])- a sudden stop in speech, making it unfinished; interrupting one sentence and starting a new one.
I if only could I ... But now is not the time to tell it. If only I could, I... But now is not the time to talk about it (instead of an ellipsis in English, a dash can be used. For more information about punctuation, see the material “Punctuation Marks”).
Rhetoric/rhetorical questions- a question that does not require an answer, since it is already known in advance. A rhetorical question is used to enhance the meaning of a statement, to give it greater significance.
Have you just said something? Did you say something? (Like a question asked by a person who did not hear the words of another. This question is asked not in order to find out whether the person said something at all or not, since this is already known, but in order to find out exactly what he said.
Pun/Wordplay (pun)- jokes and riddles containing puns.
What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver?
(One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)
What is the difference between a teacher and a driver?
(One guides our minds, the other knows how to drive a train).
Interjection- a word that serves to express feelings, sensations, mental states, etc., but does not name them.
O! Oh! Ah! ABOUT! Oh! Oh! Oh!
Aha! (Aha!)
Pooh! Ugh! Ugh! ugh!
Gosh! Damn it! Oh shit!
Hush! Quiet! Shh! Tsits!
Fine! Fine!
Yah! Yah?
Gracious Me! Gracious! Fathers!
Christ! Jesus! Jesus Christ! Good gracious! Goodness gracious! Good heavens! Oh my god! (Lord! My God!
Cliche/Stamp (cliche)- an expression that has become banal and hackneyed.
Live and learn. Live and learn.
ProverbsAndsayings(proverbs and sayings).
A shut mouth catches no flies. Even a fly cannot fly into a closed mouth.
Idiom/set phrase- a phrase whose meaning is not determined by the meaning of its constituent words taken individually. Due to the fact that the idiom cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), difficulties in translation and understanding often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring.
No matter
Cloud up Frown
