Choose the correct answer
1) Vladimirskoe
2) Chernigovskoe
3) Kyiv
4) Ryazanskoye
The founders of the Mongolian state are
1) Genghis Khan
4) Subedey
3. Which answer option can be put in place of the blank?
Methods of politics of the Horde khans
The policy of “divide and rule” __________________________Punishment of the recalcitrant
1) convening of princely congresses
2) inculcation of one’s cultural traditions and religious views
3) maintaining friendly relations with the Catholic West
4) exemption from paying tribute to the Orthodox clergy
Horde exit is
1) a tenth of all income in favor of the Golden Horde
2) the deportation of the Russian population to the Horde
3) Horde raids on Rus'
4) the trip of the Russian princes to the Golden Horde for a label for the Russian reign
The task of Christianizing the Baltic peoples was entrusted to
1) Order of Malta
2) Templar Order
3) Teutonic Order
4) Livonian Order
What battle contributed to the crusaders’ refusal to quickly conquer north-west Rus'?
1) Battle of the Neva
2) Battle on the river. Sit
3) Battle on the ice
4) Battle of Rakovor
Where did the first clash between the Russian army and Mongol troops take place?
1) on the Kalka River
2) on the Don River
3) on the Piana River
4) on the Vozha River
In December 1237, the Mongol army entered the territory
1) Principality of Kozel
2) Ryazan Principality
3) Chernigov principality
4) Principality of Kyiv
In what year was Horde rule over Russia established?
Golden Horde was part
1) state of Khorezmshahs
2) Polovtsian steppe
3) Mongol Empire
4) Crimean Khanate
Which Russian lands did NOT fall under the rule of the Horde?
1) Southwestern Rus'
2) Western Rus'
3) Southern Rus'
4) Northwestern Rus'
12. Eliminate the unnecessary ones in the series “Cities that showed stubborn resistance to Batu’s army”:
3) Vladimir
4) Kozelsk
Alexander Nevsky in the Battle of Lake Peipsi defeated
1) by the combined forces of Swedes, Norwegians, Finns
2) Teutonic Order
3) the united army of the Swedes
4) knights of the Livonian Order
14. Indicate by what principle the series is constructed: Gavrila Oleksich, Savva, Yakov the Polotsk resident, Novgorodian Misha, Ratmir -
1) participants in the battle on Lake Peipus
2) organizers of the defense of Russian cities during the Horde invasion
3) heroes of the Battle of the Neva
4) instigators of the uprising against the Horde yoke
What was NOT a form of dependence of Rus' on the Horde?
1) issuance of a label for the great reign by the khans
2) control over the Orthodox clergy
3) payment of tribute
4) the obligation to send soldiers to the Mongol troops
Daniil Galitsky in the fight against the Horde
1) tried to rely on the Catholic powers
2) obtained a payoff to independently collect tribute
3) conducted active negotiations with the khans to reduce tribute
4) supported the policies of Alexander Nevsky
Choose the correct answers
Indicate the reasons for Alexander Yaroslavich’s victory over the Swedes in Battle on the Ice
A) strategically prime location for the battle
B) significant numerical superiority of the Russian army
C) the courage of Russian soldiers
D) autumn weather conditions
D) the youth and daring of the prince
E) erroneous tactics of the knights
Indicate the reasons for the defeat of Rus' in the fight against the Mongols
A) the absence of fortified cities in Rus'
B) political fragmentation of Rus'
C) the transition to the side of the Horde of the princes of the southern lands
D) strife between Russian princes
D) the need to combat the invasion of the Crusaders in the north-west of Rus'
E) superiority of the Mongol army in combat qualities
Choose the correct answer
Which “table” was the most prestigious at the beginning of the 14th century?
1) Kyiv
2) Vladimirsky
3) Novgorod
4) Moscow
To which city did the metropolitan move from Kyiv in 1299?
1) Vladimir
4) Novgorod
What was the name of the type of large land property that was inherited in Ancient Rus'?
1) estate
2) fiefdom
3) estate
The collapse of the Golden Horde occurred after the death
1) Tamerlane
2) Tokhtamysh
Indicate the years of reign of Ivan Kalita
1) 1154–1212
2) 1325–1340
3) 1340–1353
4) 1359–1389
Name the first Russian metropolitan actually independent of the Patriarch of Constantinople.
4) Theognostus
With the example of his life, he “raised the fallen spirit native people, awakened in him confidence in himself, in his strengths, and inspired faith in his future.” About whom we're talking about?
1) Alexander Nevsky
2) Dmitry Donskoy
3) Sergius of Radonezh
4) Ivan Kalita
Fill the gaps
21. Independence, independence of the Russian Church - ________________.
22. According to legend, before the Battle of Kulikovo, ______________ fought in a duel with the Horde hero.
Grand Duchy of Lithuania in the XIII–XV centuries. (§ 16)
Choose the correct answer
Fill the gaps
20. Privileges are ____________________________________________________________
21. The Union of Krevo was concluded between Lithuania and ____________ in _________.
22. According to the ____________ union, the Lithuanian prince could not be elected without the consent of the Polish king.
Culture of Rus' XIII–XV centuries. (§§ 17–18)
Choose the correct answer
1. The bulk of the townspeople (merchants, artisans) lived in
1) child
3) estates
4) settlements
2. The first mention of the use of guns in Rus' was given in the chronicle
1) about the defense of Ryazan
2) about the capture of Moscow by Tokhtamysh in 1382.
3) about the Battle of Kulikovo
4) about the Battle of Grunwald
3. Appears in Rus' in the 14th century
2) papyrus
3) parchment
4) printed book
4. Indicate who was a contemporary of Andrei Rublev?
1) Metropolitan Hilarion
2) Yuri Dolgoruky
3) Sergius of Radonezh
4) Prince Mindovg
5. Under which Moscow prince was the white-stone Kremlin built?
1) Daniil
2) Ivan Kalita
3) Vasily I
4) Dmitry Ivanovich (Donskoy)
6. Which new genre appears in Russian literature in the 13th–14th centuries?
1) satirical story
2) hagiographic
3) journalistic
4) autobiographical
7. Required condition for canonization there was a drawing up
1) prayers
3) walking
4) a word of praise
Who or what are we talking about?
20. “...living with his brothers, he endured many hardships and performed great feats and labors of fasting life... And he participated in all other monastic affairs needed by the brethren: sometimes he carried firewood on his shoulders from the forest and, having broken and stabbed it, cut it into logs, and carried it in cells. ... He ... did not snatch rank from anyone, did not make promises for this, did not give payment, like some ambitious people who snatch everything from each other ... The blessed one never stopped charity and ordered the servants in the monastery to give shelter to the poor and wanderers and help those in need. .." _________________________
21 . In an Orthodox Russian church there is a wall lined with icons separating it from the altar. ________________
22. A sublime style, the first signs of which are present in the writings of Metropolitan Cyprian. Pachomius Logothetes – a virtuoso of this style of “weaving words”, with deliberate solemnity and pretentiousness __________________
Part C*
1. Read an excerpt from historical source and briefly answer questions 1–3. Answers involve the use of information from the source, as well as the application of knowledge from the history course of the relevant period.
Prince Alexander prepared for battle, and they went against each other, and Lake Peipus was covered with many of these and other warriors. Alexander's father, Yaroslav, sent him to help younger brother Andrei with a large squad. And Prince Alexander had many brave warriors, like King David in ancient times, strong and steadfast. So Alexander’s men were filled with the spirit of war, because their hearts were like the hearts of lions... It was then Saturday, and when the sun rose, the opponents met. And there was a cruel slaughter, and there was a crash from breaking spears and a ringing from the blows of swords, and it seemed that a frozen lake was moving, and no ice was visible, for it was covered with blood.<…>And so he defeated the enemies with the help of God, and they fled, but Alexander cut them down, chasing them as if through the air, and they had nowhere to hide.<…>And Prince Alexander returned with a glorious victory, and there were many captives in his army, and they led barefoot next to the horses of those who call themselves “God’s knights.”<…>And his name became famous in all countries...
1. What battle is described in this fragment?
2. What is the significance of Prince Alexander's victory?
3. Why was Alexander Nevsky canonized by the church back in the Middle Ages?
Generalized characteristic task historical events and phenomena.
How did Rus' become dependent on the Golden Horde? (Give at least three examples.)
What views did the Russian princes have on relations with the Horde? (Name at least two points of view).
A task to consider historical versions and assessments.
There is an opinion that the yoke had and positive features for the development of Rus', and “the alliance between Moscow and the Horde lasted as long as it was mutually beneficial.”
What other opinion do you know about the period of Mongol rule? Which argument do you find more convincing? Name the facts that can serve as arguments for your chosen point of view (at least three).
4. Task to analyze the historical situation.
Historian N.M. Karamzin wrote: “...A miracle happened. A town barely known before the 14th century. .., raised the head..."
What changes took place in the Moscow Principality by the 14th century? (at least two)? What were the reasons for these changes (at least three)?
Comparison task.
In the XIV–XV centuries. The state structure of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania is being formalized, and Moscow firmly holds leadership in the process of unification of Russian lands. Compare the paths along which the formation took place government system these lands. Indicate what was common (at least two) and what was different (at least three differences).
Tatar-Mongol yoke
Choose the correct answer
Which principality was the first to be attacked by the Mongol hordes in 1237?
1) Vladimirskoe
2) Chernigovskoe
3) Kyiv
In 1237, Batu gathered troops in the upper reaches of the Irtysh and moved with them to the Middle Volga. He attacked the Volga Bulgarians, defeated them and occupied their capital. Then, crossing the Volga, he entered the Russian principalities. The first principality to be attacked by the Mongols was Ryazan. In conditions of general fragmentation and princely civil strife, Ryazan could not count on the help of neighboring principalities. After stubborn resistance, Ryazan fell, the city was destroyed and burned, and the population either fled and hid in forests and inaccessible places, or was destroyed.
After the defeat of Ryazan, the Mongols moved to the northwest, cutting off. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality from Smolensk and Chernigov. Walking through Kolomna to Moscow, the Mongols met the troops of the Suzdal prince, who was late coming to the aid of Ryazan; defeated his troops and occupied Moscow.
From Moscow, the Tatars moved to Vladimir-Suzdal, sending a detachment to Torzhok to cut off Tver from Novgorod. On February 3, 1238, the Mongols occupied Vladimir, burned it, and massacred the population. Grand Duke Suzdal, Yuri Vsevolodovich at that time was gathering troops in the north, and met with the Tatars on the river. City. In the battle that took place, his troops were defeated and he himself was killed.
Having defeated the Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal principalities, the Tatars moved towards Novgorod. Batu took Torzhok along the way, but due to the onset of the spring thaw and the losses suffered, he turned his troops and stopped with them in the lower reaches of the Don and Volga. The army required replenishment and new organization for further campaign and conquest.
According to historians, the number of Batu’s troops that conquered Russian lands consisted of 33 subjects or 330,000 fighters. Among these troops there were only 4,000 Mongols and 30,000 related Tatars. The bulk of the army was made up of the Turkic-Mongolian tribes of the Kipchak, or, in Russian, the Polovtsy, whose total male population was estimated at 2 million.
Having conquered the northern Russian principalities, Batu stationed detachments of troops everywhere with the Baskaks, who began to collect a tenth of the property and a tenth of the population. “Having counted ten, they took one away: they did the same with the girls, they took them and took them to their lands, where they established them according to their custom. Men who did not have wives were also taken away, as well as women who did not have husbands, and beggars were also taken away... In addition, from a father who had three sons, one was taken away..."
The captured population was sent to the location of Khan's Headquarters and distributed there depending on their physical qualities: some went to form an army, others to the internal service of the country and labor force.
The organization of the army, replenishment and training within the lower reaches of the Volga and Don took about two years. Replenished by Russians, Batu's army was doubled and instead of 33 troops that came from Asia, it was increased to 60, or 600,000 fighters.
In 1241 Batu moved west. He took Chernigov, which was burned, and moved towards Kyiv. The movement of the Mongol troops was accompanied by the entire population of the Ulus, moving on carts, with families, livestock and terrible dust that covered the sun. As the Mongol approached, the Galician prince Daniil Romanovich, who annexed Kyiv to his possessions, fled to Hungary, leaving the governor Eykovich to defend the city.
Kyiv was besieged by the Mongols and put up stubborn resistance. The Mongols could not take it with an open attack; they brought up heavy battering machines and began to destroy the camps of the defensive rampart.
Kyiv was taken and the population was massacred. An exception was made to Voivode Eykovich, and for his courageous defense, Batu not only spared him, but also appointed him thousand-man of Kyiv.
After the capture of Kyiv, Batu moved his troops in three columns to Poland, Silesia and Hungary. Along the way, the Mongols destroyed Vladimir-Volynsky, Kholm, Sandomierz and Krakow; defeated the Teutonic knights and German-Polish troops and invaded Moravia. On the way, they met resistance from the troops of the Bohemian king and stronger resistance in the Czech Republic from the combined forces of the Austrian and Karingian dukes, in battles with which the Horde was defeated, turned back and went to join the main forces in Hungary.
By this time, Batu defeated the troops of the Hungarian king and invaded Hungary. King Bela concentrated the troops of Hungary, Croatia, Austria, French knights and other sovereign princes near Pest. The Mongols approached Pest, and, after standing for two months, began to retreat. The allies moved to pursue the Mongols; They walked forward for six days, seeing no one except individual horsemen. On the seventh day, the allies settled down on a plain surrounded by hills covered with vineyards. By morning they saw that all the surrounding hills were occupied by the Mongol army. The Allies went on the offensive, but were met from the hills by gunfire from bows and stone-throwing machines. Having suffered heavy losses, the allies began to retreat towards the Danube. During the six days of retreat, most of the troops were destroyed and the Mongols took Pest.
The troops of King Bel continued to retreat to Dalmatia, and the Mongols, in pursuit, destroyed European cities and, having passed through Slavonia, Croatia and Serbia, turned back.
There are notes from the Hungarian king and a letter to the Pope about the composition of Batu's troops, in which it is written that the Mongol troops included Russian troops. “When,” the king wrote, “the state of Hungary, from the Mongol invasion, as if from a plague, for the most part was turned into a desert, and like a sheepfold was surrounded by various tribes of infidels, namely: Russians, wanderers from the east, Bulgarians and other heretics from the south.” . Batu led his troops to the lower reaches of the Don and Volga and thus ended his campaigns of conquest to the west.
Batu's possessions included lands from the river. Ob in the east and to Novgorod and Galich in the west. The Principality of Galicia and Novgorod were not occupied by the Mongols, and the Russian population of the Azov region and the Brodniks occupied a special position. This part of the Russian population was not conquered by the Mongols before the campaign to the west, and according to the notes of Pope Gregory, at the end of the campaign they were subject to tribute, like other peoples. The peoples of the Azov region did not want to be tributaries of the Mongols and rebelled against them. The center of the outbreak of war was the Don Delta and the city of Tanais. The Mongols could not take Tanais by open assault and decided to flood it. They set up barriers along the numerous branches of the Don delta and flooded the city. Resistance was broken and the population was beaten. After which Batu began to establish a vast Empire with peoples different in race, religion and culture. For centuries, Rus' was placed in political, economic and moral dependence on the Mongols, which amounted to a sharp turning point in its history.
The war came to Sevastopol earlier than to other cities Soviet Union- the first bombs were dropped on the city at 3:15 am. Earlier than the officially approved time of the beginning of the Great Patriotic War. It was at 3:15 a.m. that the commander Black Sea Fleet Vice Admiral Philip Oktyabrsky called the capital and reported to Admiral Kuznetsov that an air raid had been carried out on Sevastopol and anti-aircraft artillery was returning fire.
The Germans sought to block the fleet. They dropped bottom proximity mines of enormous power. The bombs were lowered by parachute; when the shell reached the surface of the water, the fastenings came off and the bomb sank to the bottom. These mines had specific goals- Soviet ships. But one of them fell on a residential area - about 20 people were killed, more than 100 were injured.
Warships and assets air defense were ready to strike back. At 3:06 a.m., the chief of staff of the Black Sea Fleet, Rear Admiral Ivan Eliseev, gave the order to open fire on the fascist planes that had invaded far into the airspace of the USSR. This is how he left a mark on the series of historical events - he gave the first combat order to repel enemy attacks.
It is interesting that for a long time Eliseev’s feat was either hushed up or fitted into the framework of the official chronology of military operations. That is why in some sources you can find information that the order was given at 4 am. In those days, this order was given in defiance of the orders of the higher military command and, according to the laws, it should have been executed.
On June 22 at 3 hours 48 minutes in Sevastopol there were already the first casualties of the Great Patriotic War. 12 minutes before the official announcement of the start of hostilities, German bombs ended the lives of civilians. In Sevastopol, a monument to the first victims of the war was built in memory of them.
Empires on the territory of ancient Russian principalities. This event left a deep mark on the history of our Fatherland. Next, let's look at how Batu's invasion of Rus' took place (briefly).
Background
The Mongol feudal lords who lived long before Batu had plans to conquer Eastern European territory. In the 1220s. preparations were made in some way for a future conquest. An important part of it was the campaign of the thirty thousand army of Jebe and Subedei to the territory of Transcaucasia and Southeast Europe in 1222-24 Its purpose was exclusively reconnaissance and collection of information. In 1223, the battle took place during this campaign and ended in victory for the Mongols. As a result of the campaign, the future conquerors thoroughly studied future battlefields, learned about fortifications and troops, and received information about the location of the principalities of Rus'. From the army of Jebe and Subedei, they headed to Volga Bulgaria. But there the Mongols were defeated and returned to Central Asia through the steppes of modern Kazakhstan. The beginning of Batu's invasion of Rus' was quite sudden.
Devastation of the Ryazan territory
Batu’s invasion of Rus', in short, pursued the goal of enslaving the people, capturing and annexing new territories. The Mongols appeared on the southern borders of the Ryazan principality demanding that tribute be paid to them. Prince Yuri asked for help from Mikhail Chernigovsky and Yuri Vladimirsky. At Batu's headquarters, the Ryazan embassy was destroyed. Prince Yuri led his army, as well as the Murom regiments, to the border battle, but the battle was lost. Yuri Vsevolodovich sent a united army to help Ryazan. It included the regiments of his son Vsevolod, the people of the governor Eremey Glebovich, and Novgorod detachments. The forces that retreated from Ryazan also joined this army. The city fell after a six-day siege. The sent regiments managed to give battle to the conquerors near Kolomna, but were defeated.
Results of the first battles
The beginning of Batu's invasion of Rus' was marked by the destruction of not only Ryazan, but also the ruin of the entire principality. The Mongols captured Pronsk and captured Prince Oleg Ingvarevich the Red. Batu's invasion of Rus' (the date of the first battle is indicated above) was accompanied by the destruction of many cities and villages. So, the Mongols destroyed Belgorod Ryazan. This city was never subsequently restored. Tula researchers identify it with a settlement near the Polosni River, near the village of Beloroditsa (16 km from modern Veneva). Voronezh Ryazan was also wiped off the face of the earth. The ruins of the city stood deserted for several centuries. Only in 1586 a fort was built on the site of the settlement. The Mongols also destroyed the fairly famous city of Dedoslavl. Some researchers identify it with a settlement near the village of Dedilovo, on the right bank of the river. Shat.
Attack on the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality
After the defeat of the Ryazan lands, Batu's invasion of Rus' was somewhat suspended. When the Mongols invaded the Vladimir-Suzdal lands, they were unexpectedly overtaken by the regiments of Evpatiy Kolovrat, a Ryazan boyar. Thanks to this surprise, the squad was able to defeat the invaders, inflicting heavy losses on them. In 1238, after a five-day siege, Moscow fell. Vladimir (Yuri’s youngest son) and Philip Nyanka stood in defense of the city. At the head of the thirty thousand strong detachment that defeated the Moscow squad, according to sources, was Shiban. Yuri Vsevolodovich, moving north to the Sit River, began to assemble a new squad, while expecting help from Svyatoslav and Yaroslav (his brothers). In early February 1238, after an eight-day siege, Vladimir fell. The family of Prince Yuri died there. In the same February, in addition to Vladimir, cities such as Suzdal, Yuryev-Polsky, Pereyaslavl-Zalessky, Starodub-on-Klyazma, Rostov, Galich-Mersky, Kostroma, Gorodets, Tver, Dmitrov, Ksnyatin, Kashin, Uglich, Yaroslavl fell. . The Novgorod suburbs of Volok Lamsky and Vologda were also captured.
The situation in the Volga region
Batu's invasion of Rus' was very large-scale. In addition to the main ones, the Mongols also had secondary forces. With the help of the latter, the Volga region was captured. Over the course of three weeks, secondary forces led by Burundai covered twice the distance than the main Mongol troops during the siege of Torzhok and Tver, and approached the City River from the direction of Uglich. The Vladimir regiments did not have time to prepare for battle; they were surrounded and almost completely destroyed. Some of the warriors were taken prisoner. But at the same time, the Mongols themselves suffered serious losses. The center of Yaroslav's possessions lay directly on the path of the Mongols, who were advancing towards Novgorod from Vladimir. Pereyaslavl-Zalessky was captured within five days. During the capture of Tver, one of the sons of Prince Yaroslav died (his name has not been preserved). The chronicles do not contain information about the participation of Novgorodians in the Battle of the City. There is no mention of any actions of Yaroslav. Some researchers quite often emphasize that Novgorod did not send help to help Torzhok.
Results of the seizure of the Volga lands
The historian Tatishchev, speaking about the results of the battles, draws attention to the fact that the losses in the Mongols’ detachments were several times greater than those of the Russians. However, the Tatars made up for them at the expense of prisoners. At that time there were more of them than the invaders themselves. So, for example, the assault on Vladimir began only after a detachment of Mongols returned from Suzdal with prisoners.
Defense of Kozelsk
Batu's invasion of Rus' from the beginning of March 1238 took place according to a specific plan. After the capture of Torzhok, the remnants of Burundai’s detachment, uniting with the main forces, suddenly turned to the steppe. The invaders did not reach Novgorod by about 100 versts. IN different sources Various versions of this turn are given. Some say that the cause was the spring thaw, others say the threat of famine. One way or another, the invasion of Batu’s troops into Rus' continued, but in a different direction.
The Mongols were now divided into two groups. The main detachment passed east of Smolensk (30 km from the city) and made a stop in the lands of Dolgomostye. In one of literary sources there is information that the Mongols were defeated and fled. After this, the main detachment moved south. Here, the invasion of Rus' by Batu Khan was marked by the invasion of the Chernigov lands and the burning of Vshchizh, located in close proximity to the central regions of the principality. According to one of the sources, in connection with these events, 4 sons of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich died. Then the main forces of the Mongols turned sharply to the northeast. Having bypassed Karachev and Bryansk, the Tatars took possession of Kozelsk. The eastern group, meanwhile, took place in the spring of 1238 near Ryazan. The detachments were led by Buri and Kadan. At that time, Vasily, the 12-year-old grandson of Mstislav Svyatoslavovich, was reigning in Kozelsk. The battle for the city dragged on for seven weeks. By May 1238, both groups of Mongols united at Kozelsk and captured it three days later, albeit with heavy losses.
Further developments
By the middle of the 13th century, the invasion of Rus' began to take on an episodic character. The Mongols invaded only the border lands, in the process of suppressing uprisings in the Polovtsian steppes and the Volga region. In the chronicle, at the end of the story about the campaign in the northeastern territories, there is mention of the calm that accompanied Batu’s invasion of Rus' (“the year of peace” - from 1238 to 1239). After him, on October 18, 1239, Chernigov was besieged and taken. After the fall of the city, the Mongols began to plunder and destroy the territories along the Seim and Desna. Rylsk, Vyr, Glukhov, Putivl, Gomiy were devastated and destroyed.
Hiking in the area near the Dnieper
A corps led by Bukday was sent to help the Mongol troops involved in Transcaucasia. This happened in 1240. Around the same period, Batu decided to send Munke, Buri and Guyuk home. The remaining detachments regrouped, replenished a second time with captured Volga and Polovtsian prisoners. The next direction was the territory of the right bank of the Dnieper. Most of them (Kiev, Volyn, Galician and, presumably, the Turov-Pinsk principality) by 1240 were united under the rule of Daniil and Vasilko, the sons of Roman Mstislavovich (Volyn ruler). The first, considering himself unable to resist the Mongols on his own, set off on the eve of the invasion of Hungary. Presumably Daniel's goal was to ask King Béla VI for help in repelling the Tatar attacks.
Consequences of Batu's invasion of Rus'
As a result of the barbaric raids of the Mongols, a huge number of the state's population died. A significant part of large and small cities and villages was destroyed. Chernigov, Tver, Ryazan, Suzdal, Vladimir, and Kyiv suffered significantly. The exceptions were Pskov, Veliky Novgorod, the cities of Turovo-Pinsk, Polotsk and Suzdal principalities. As a result of the invasion, the comparative development of the culture of large settlements suffered irreparable damage. For several decades, stone construction was almost completely stopped in cities. In addition, such complex crafts as the production of glass jewelry, the production of grain, niello, cloisonne enamel, and glazed polychrome ceramics disappeared. Rus' is significantly behind in its development. It was thrown back several centuries ago. And while the Western guild industry was entering the stage of primitive accumulation, Russian craft had to again go through that part of the historical path that had been done before Batu’s invasion.
In the southern lands, the settled population disappeared almost completely. The surviving residents went to the forest areas of the northeast, settling along the interfluve of the Oka and Northern Volga. These areas had a colder climate and were not as fertile soils, as in the southern regions, destroyed and ravaged by the Mongols. Trade routes were controlled by the Tatars. Because of this, there was no connection between Russia and other overseas states. The socio-economic development of the Fatherland in that historical period was at a very low level.
Opinion of military historians
Researchers note that the process of forming and merging rifle detachments and heavy cavalry regiments, which specialized in direct strikes with edged weapons, ended in Rus' immediately after Batu’s invasion. During this period, there was a unification of functions in the person of a single feudal warrior. He was forced to shoot with a bow and at the same time fight with a sword and spear. From this we can conclude that even the exclusively selected, feudal part of the Russian army in its development was thrown back a couple of centuries. The chronicles do not contain information about the existence of individual rifle detachments. This is understandable. For their formation, people were needed who were ready to break away from production and sell their blood for money. And in the economic situation in which Rus' was, mercenaryism was completely unaffordable.
If you remove all the lies from history, this does not mean at all that only the truth will remain - as a result, there may be nothing left at all.
Stanislav Jerzy Lec
Tatar-Mongol invasion began in 1237 with the invasion of Batu's cavalry into the Ryazan lands, and ended in 1242. The result of these events was a two-century yoke. This is what the textbooks say, but in reality the relationship between the Horde and Russia was much more complicated. In particular, the famous historian Gumilyov speaks about this. In this material we will briefly consider the issues of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatar army from the point of view of the generally accepted interpretation, and also consider controversial issues of this interpretation. Our task is not to offer fantasy on the topic of medieval society for the thousandth time, but to provide our readers with facts. And conclusions are everyone’s business.
Beginning of the invasion and background
For the first time, the troops of Rus' and the Horde met on May 31, 1223 in the battle of Kalka. The Russian troops were led by the Kiev prince Mstislav, and they were opposed by Subedey and Jube. The Russian army was not only defeated, it was actually destroyed. There are many reasons for this, but all of them are discussed in the article about the Battle of Kalka. Returning to the first invasion, it occurred in two stages:
- 1237-1238 - campaign against the eastern and northern lands of Rus'.
- 1239-1242 - a campaign against the southern lands, which led to the establishment of the yoke.
Invasion of 1237-1238
In 1236, the Mongols began another campaign against the Cumans. In this campaign they achieved great success and in the second half of 1237 they approached the borders of the Ryazan principality. The Asian cavalry was commanded by Khan Batu (Batu Khan), the grandson of Genghis Khan. He had 150 thousand people under his command. Subedey, who was familiar with the Russians from previous clashes, took part in the campaign with him.
Map of the Tatar-Mongol invasion
The invasion took place in the early winter of 1237. It is impossible to establish the exact date here, since it is unknown. Moreover, some historians say that the invasion took place not in winter, but in late autumn of the same year. With tremendous speed, the Mongol cavalry moved across the country, conquering one city after another:
- Ryazan fell at the end of December 1237. The siege lasted 6 days.
- Moscow - fell in January 1238. The siege lasted 4 days. This event was preceded by the battle of Kolomna, where Yuri Vsevolodovich and his army tried to stop the enemy, but was defeated.
- Vladimir - fell in February 1238. The siege lasted 8 days.
After the capture of Vladimir, virtually all the eastern and northern lands fell into the hands of Batu. He conquered one city after another (Tver, Yuryev, Suzdal, Pereslavl, Dmitrov). At the beginning of March, Torzhok fell, thereby opening the way for the Mongol army to the north, to Novgorod. But Batu made a different maneuver and instead of marching on Novgorod, he deployed his troops and went to storm Kozelsk. The siege lasted for 7 weeks, ending only when the Mongols resorted to cunning. They announced that they would accept the surrender of the Kozelsk garrison and release everyone alive. People believed and opened the gates of the fortress. Batu did not keep his word and gave the order to kill everyone. Thus ended the first campaign and the first invasion of the Tatar-Mongol army into Rus'.
Invasion of 1239-1242
After a break of one and a half years, in 1239, a new invasion of Rus' by the troops of Batu Khan began. This year based events took place in Pereyaslav and Chernigov. The sluggishness of Batu’s offensive is due to the fact that at that time he was actively fighting the Polovtsians, in particular in the Crimea.
Autumn 1240 Batu led his army to the walls of Kyiv. The ancient capital of Rus' could not resist for long. The city fell on December 6, 1240. Historians note the particular brutality with which the invaders behaved. Kyiv was almost completely destroyed. There is nothing left of the city. The Kyiv that we know today no longer has anything in common with the ancient capital (except geographical location). After these events, the army of invaders split:
- Some went to Vladimir-Volynsky.
- Some went to Galich.
Having captured these cities, the Mongols went on a European campaign, but it interests us little.
Consequences of the Tatar-Mongol invasion of Rus'
Historians describe the consequences of the invasion of the Asian army into Rus' unambiguously:
- The country was cut up and became completely dependent on the Golden Horde.
- Rus' began to annually pay tribute to the victors (money and people).
- The country has fallen into a stupor in terms of progress and development due to the unbearable yoke.
This list can be continued, but, in general, it all comes down to the fact that all the problems that existed in Rus' at that time were attributed to the yoke.
This is exactly what the Tatar-Mongol invasion seems to be, in short, from the point of view of official history and what we are told in textbooks. In contrast, we will consider Gumilyov’s arguments, and also ask a number of simple, but very important issues to understand the current issues and the fact that with the yoke, as well as with the relations between Rus' and the Horde, everything is much more complex than is usually said.
For example, it is absolutely incomprehensible and inexplicable how a nomadic people, who several decades ago lived in a tribal system, created a huge empire and conquered half the world. After all, when considering the invasion of Rus', we are considering only the tip of the iceberg. The Empire of the Golden Horde was much larger: from the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic, from Vladimir to Burma. Giant countries were conquered: Rus', China, India... Neither before nor after has anyone been able to create a military machine that could conquer so many countries. But the Mongols were able...
To understand how difficult it was (if not to say impossible), let's look at the situation with China (so as not to be accused of looking for a conspiracy around Rus'). The population of China at the time of Genghis Khan was approximately 50 million people. No one conducted a census of the Mongols, but, for example, today this nation has 2 million people. If we take into account that the number of all peoples of the Middle Ages is increasing to the present day, then the Mongols were less than 2 million people (including women, old people and children). How were they able to conquer China with 50 million inhabitants? And then also India and Russia...
The strangeness of the geography of Batu’s movement
Let's return to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Rus'. What were the goals of this trip? Historians talk about the desire to plunder the country and subjugate it. It also states that all these goals have been achieved. But this is not entirely true, because in ancient Rus' there were 3 richest cities:
- Kyiv is one of the largest cities in Europe and the ancient capital of Rus'. The city was conquered by the Mongols and destroyed.
- Novgorod is the largest trading city and the richest in the country (hence its special status). Didn't suffer from the invasion at all.
- Smolensk is also a trading city and was considered equal in wealth to Kyiv. The city also did not see the Mongol-Tatar army.
So it turns out that 2 of the 3 largest cities were not affected by the invasion at all. Moreover, if we consider plunder as a key aspect of Batu’s invasion of Rus', then the logic cannot be traced at all. Judge for yourself, Batu takes Torzhok (he spends 2 weeks on the assault). This is the poorest city, whose task is to protect Novgorod. But after this, the Mongols do not go to the North, which would be logical, but turn to the south. Why was it necessary to spend 2 weeks on Torzhok, which no one needs, in order to simply turn to the South? Historians give two explanations, logical at first glance:
- Near Torzhok, Batu lost many soldiers and was afraid to go to Novgorod. This explanation could well be considered logical if not for one “but”. Since Batu lost a lot of his army, then he needs to leave Rus' to replenish the army or take a break. But instead, the khan rushes to storm Kozelsk. There, by the way, the losses were huge and as a result the Mongols hastily left Rus'. But why they didn’t go to Novgorod is unclear.
- The Tatar-Mongols were afraid of the spring flooding of the rivers (this happened in March). Even in modern conditions March in the north of Russia is not characterized by a mild climate and you can easily move around there. And if we talk about 1238, then that era is called by climatologists the Little Ice Age, when winters were much harsher than modern ones and in general the temperature was much lower (this is easy to check). That is, it turns out that in the era of global warming, Novgorod can be reached in March, but in the era of the Ice Age everyone was afraid of river floods.
With Smolensk, the situation is also paradoxical and inexplicable. Having taken Torzhok, Batu sets off to storm Kozelsk. This is a simple fortress, a small and very poor city. The Mongols stormed it for 7 weeks and lost thousands of people killed. Why was this done? There was no benefit from the capture of Kozelsk - there was no money in the city, and there were no food warehouses either. Why such sacrifices? But just 24 hours of cavalry movement from Kozelsk is Smolensk, the richest city in Rus', but the Mongols don’t even think about moving towards it.
Surprisingly, all these logical questions are simply ignored by official historians. Standard excuses are given, like, who knows these savages, this is what they decided for themselves. But this explanation does not stand up to criticism.
Nomads never howl in winter
There is one more remarkable fact that official history simply ignores, because... it is impossible to explain. Both Tatar-Mongol invasions took place in Rus' in winter (or began in late autumn). But these are nomads, and nomads begin to fight only in the spring in order to finish the battles before winter. After all, they travel on horses that need to be fed. Can you imagine how you can feed a Mongolian army of thousands in snowy Russia? Historians, of course, say that this is a trifle and that such issues should not even be considered, but the success of any operation directly depends on the support:
- Charles 12 was unable to provide support for his army - he lost Poltava and the Northern War.
- Napoleon was unable to organize supplies and left Russia with a half-starved army that was absolutely incapable of combat.
- Hitler, according to many historians, managed to establish support only by 60-70% - he lost the Second World War.
Now, understanding all this, let's look at what the Mongol army was like. It is noteworthy, but there is no definite figure for its quantitative composition. Historians give figures from 50 thousand to 400 thousand horsemen. For example, Karamzin talks about Batu’s 300 thousand army. Let's look at the provision of the army using this figure as an example. As you know, the Mongols always went on military campaigns with three horses: a riding horse (the rider moved on it), a pack horse (it carried the rider’s personal belongings and weapons) and a fighting horse (it went empty, so that it could go into battle fresh at any time). That is, 300 thousand people are 900 thousand horses. To this add the horses that transported ram guns (it is known for certain that the Mongols brought the guns assembled), horses that carried food for the army, carried additional weapons, etc. It turns out, according to the most conservative estimates, 1.1 million horses! Now imagine how to feed such a herd in a foreign country in a snowy winter (during the Little Ice Age)? There is no answer, because this cannot be done.
So how much army did Dad have?
It is noteworthy, but the closer to our time the study of the invasion of the Tatar-Mongol army takes place, the more fewer numbers it turns out. For example, historian Vladimir Chivilikhin speaks of 30 thousand who moved separately, since they could not feed themselves in a single army. Some historians lower this figure even lower – to 15 thousand. And here we come across an insoluble contradiction:
- If there really were so many Mongols (200-400 thousand), then how could they feed themselves and their horses in the harsh Russian winter? The cities did not surrender to them peacefully in order to take food from them, most of the fortresses were burned.
- If there were really only 30-50 thousand Mongols, then how did they manage to conquer Rus'? After all, every principality fielded an army of about 50 thousand against Batu. If there really were so few Mongols and they acted independently, the remnants of the horde and Batu himself would have been buried near Vladimir. But in reality everything was different.
We invite the reader to look for conclusions and answers to these questions on their own. For our part, we did the most important thing - we pointed out facts that completely refute the official version of the Mongol-Tatar invasion. At the end of the article, I would like to note one more important fact, which the whole world has recognized, including official history, but this fact is hushed up and is rarely published anywhere. The main document by which the yoke and invasion were studied for many years is the Laurentian Chronicle. But, as it turned out, the truth of this document raises big questions. Official history admitted that 3 pages of the chronicle (which speak of the beginning of the yoke and the beginning of the Mongol invasion of Rus') have been changed and are not original. I wonder how many more pages from Russian history have been changed in other chronicles, and what really happened? But it is almost impossible to answer this question...
