Emperor Alexander I was the grandson of Catherine the Great from her only son Pavel Petrovich and the German princess Sophia of Württemberg, in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna. He was born in St. Petersburg on December 25, 1777. Named in honor of Alexander Nevsky, the newborn Tsarevich was immediately taken from his parents and raised under the control of the royal grandmother, which greatly influenced the political views of the future autocrat.

Childhood and adolescence

Alexander’s entire childhood was spent under the control of the reigning grandmother; he had almost no contact with his parents, however, despite this, he, like his father Pavel, loved and was well versed in military affairs. The Tsarevich served in active service in Gatchina, and at the age of 19 he was promoted to colonel.

The Tsarevich had insight, quickly grasped new knowledge and studied with pleasure. It was in him, and not in her son Paul, that Catherine the Great saw the future Russian emperor, but she could not place him on the throne, bypassing his father.

At the age of 20, he became Governor-General of St. Petersburg and chief of the Semenovsky Guards Regiment. A year later, he begins to sit in the Senate.

Alexander was critical of the policies pursued by his father, Emperor Paul, so he became involved in a conspiracy, the purpose of which was to remove the emperor from the throne and the accession of Alexander. However, the Tsarevich’s condition was to preserve the life of his father, so the latter’s violent death brought the Tsarevich a sense of guilt for the rest of his life.

Married life

The personal life of Alexander I was very eventful. The crown prince's marriage began early - at the age of 16, he was married to the fourteen-year-old Baden princess Louise Maria Augusta, who changed her name in Orthodoxy, becoming Elizaveta Alekseevna. The newlyweds were very suitable for each other, for which they received the nicknames Cupid and Psyche among the courtiers. In the first years of marriage, the relationship between the spouses was very tender and touching; the Grand Duchess was very loved and respected at court by everyone except her mother-in-law, Maria Feodorovna. However, warm relations in the family soon gave way to cool ones - the newlyweds had too much different tempers, besides, Alexander Pavlovich often cheated on his wife.

The wife of Alexander I was modest, did not like luxury, was involved in charity work, and preferred walking and reading books to balls and social events.

Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna

For almost six years, the Grand Duke’s marriage did not bear fruit, and only in 1799 did Alexander I have children. The Grand Duchess gave birth to a daughter, Maria Alexandrovna. The birth of the baby led to an intra-family scandal in the imperial family. Alexander's mother hinted that the child was born not from the Tsarevich, but from Prince Czartoryski, with whom she suspected her daughter-in-law of having an affair. In addition, the girl was born a brunette, and both parents were blondes. Emperor Paul also hinted at his daughter-in-law’s betrayal. Tsarevich Alexander himself recognized his daughter and never spoke out about the possible betrayal of his wife. The happiness of fatherhood was short-lived; Grand Duchess Maria lived for little more than a year and died in 1800. The death of their daughter briefly reconciled and brought the spouses closer.

Grand Duchess Elizaveta Alexandrovna

Numerous novels increasingly alienated the crowned spouses; Alexander, without hiding, cohabited with Maria Naryshkina, and Empress Elizabeth began an affair with Alexy Okhotnikov in 1803. In 1806, the wife of Alexander I gave birth to a daughter, Grand Duchess Elizabeth, despite the fact that the couple had not lived together for several years, the emperor recognized his daughter as his own, which made the girl first in line to the Russian throne. The children of Alexander I did not please him for long. The second daughter died at the age of 18 months. After the death of Princess Elizabeth, the relationship between the couple became even cooler.

Love affair with Maria Naryshkina

Married life did not work out in many ways due to Alexander’s fifteen-year relationship with the daughter of a Polish aristocrat M. Naryshkina, before Chetvertinskaya’s marriage. Alexander did not hide this connection, his family and all the courtiers knew about it, moreover, Maria Naryshkina herself tried to prick the emperor’s wife at every opportunity, hinting at an affair with Alexander. Over the years of the love affair, Alexander was credited with the paternity of five of Naryshkina’s six children:

• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1803,
• Elizaveta Dmitrievna, born in 1804,
• Sofya Dmitrievna, born in 1808,
• Zinaida Dmitrievna, born in 1810,
• Emmanuil Dmitrievich, born in 1813.

In 1813, the emperor broke up with Naryshkina because he suspected her of having an affair with another man. The emperor suspected that Emmanuel Naryshkin was not his son. After the breakup, friendly relations remained between the former lovers. Of all the children of Maria and Alexander I, Sofia Naryshkina lived the longest. She died at 16, on the eve of her wedding.

Illegitimate children of Alexander I

In addition to children from Maria Naryshkina, Emperor Alexander also had children from other favorites.

• Nikolai Lukash, born in 1796 from Sofia Meshcherskaya;
• Maria, born in 1819 from Maria Turkestanova;
• Maria Alexandrovna Paris (1814), mother Margarita Josephine Weimer;
• Alexandrova Wilhelmina Alexandrina Paulina, born in 1816, mother unknown;
• (1818), mother Helena Rautenstrauch;
• Nikolai Isakov (1821), mother - Karacharova Maria.

The paternity of the last four children remains controversial among researchers of the emperor's biography. Some historians even doubt whether Alexander I had children.

Domestic policy 1801 -1815

Having ascended the throne in March 1801, Alexander I Pavlovich proclaimed that he would continue the policies of his grandmother Catherine the Great. In addition to the title of Russian Emperor, Alexander was titled Tsar of Poland from 1815, Grand Duke of Finland from 1801, and Protector of the Order of Malta from 1801.

Alexander I began his reign (from 1801 to 1825) with the development of radical reforms. The Emperor abolished the Secret Expedition, prohibited the use of torture against prisoners, allowed the import of books from abroad and the opening of private printing houses in the country.

Alexander took the first step towards the abolition of serfdom by issuing a decree “On Free Plowmen” and introducing a ban on the sale of peasants without land, but these measures did not make any significant changes.

Reforms in the education system

Alexander's reforms in the education system were more fruitful. A clear gradation was introduced educational institutions according to level educational programs, this is how district and parish schools, provincial gymnasiums and colleges, and universities appeared. During 1804-1810. Kazan and Kharkov universities were opened, a pedagogical institute was opened in St. Petersburg, a privileged Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum, the Academy of Sciences was restored in the capital.

From the first days of his reign, the emperor surrounded himself with young, educated people with progressive views. One of these was the jurist Speransky, it was under his leadership that the Petrine Collegiums in the Ministry were reformed. Speransky also began developing a project to restructure the empire, which provided for the separation of powers and the creation of an elected representative body. Thus, the monarchy would have been transformed into a constitutional one, but the reform met with opposition from the political and aristocratic elite, so it was not carried out.

Reforms 1815-1825

Under the reign of Alexander I, the history of Russia changed dramatically. The Emperor was active in domestic politics at the beginning of his reign, but after 1815 they began to decline. In addition, each of his reforms met fierce resistance from the Russian nobility. Since that time, no significant changes have occurred in the Russian Empire. In 1821-1822, a secret police was established in the army, secret organizations and Masonic lodges were banned.

The exceptions were the western provinces of the empire. In 1815, Alexander 1 granted the Kingdom of Poland a constitution, according to which Poland became a hereditary monarchy within Russia. In Poland, the bicameral Sejm was retained, which, together with the king, was the legislative body. The Constitution was liberal in nature and in many ways resembled the French Charter and the English Constitution. Also in Finland, the implementation of the constitutional law of 1772 was guaranteed, and the Baltic peasants were freed from serfdom.

Military reform

After the victory over Napoleon, Alexander saw that the country needed military reform, so from 1815, Minister of War Arakcheev was entrusted with developing its project. It implied the creation of military settlements as a new military-agricultural class that would staff the army on a permanent basis. The first such settlements were introduced in the Kherson and Novgorod provinces.

Foreign policy

The reign of Alexander I left its mark on foreign policy. In the first year of his reign, he concluded peace treaties with England and France, and in 1805-1807 he joined forces against the Emperor of France Napoleon. The defeat at Austerlitz worsened Russia's position, which led to the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit with Napoleon in June 1807, which implied the creation of a defensive alliance between France and Russia.

More successful was the Russian-Turkish confrontation of 1806-1812, which ended with the signing of the Brest-Litovsk Treaty, according to which Bessarabia went to Russia.

The war with Sweden of 1808-1809 ended in victory for Russia; according to the peace treaty, the empire received Finland and the Åland Islands.

Also during the reign of Alexander, during the Russian-Persian War, Azerbaijan, Imereti, Guria, Mengrelia and Abkhazia were annexed to the empire. The Empire received the right to have its own Caspian fleet. Earlier, in 1801, Georgia became part of Russia, and in 1815 - the Duchy of Warsaw.

However, Alexander's greatest victory was the victory in the Patriotic War of 1812, so it was he who led the years 1813-1814. In March 1814, the Emperor of Russia entered Paris at the head of the coalition armies, and he also became one of the leaders of the Congress of Vienna to establish a new order in Europe. The popularity of the Russian emperor was colossal; in 1819 he became godfather of the future Queen of England Victoria.

Death of the Emperor

According to the official version, Emperor Alexander I Romanov died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog from complications of brain inflammation. Such a quick death of the emperor gave rise to a lot of rumors and legends.

In 1825, the health of the emperor's wife sharply deteriorated, doctors advised the southern climate, it was decided to go to Taganrog, the emperor decided to accompany his wife, relations with whom in recent years had become very warm.

While in the south, the emperor visited Novocherkassk and Crimea; on the way he caught a severe cold and died. Alexander was in good health and was never sick, so the death of the 48-year-old emperor became suspicious for many, and many considered his unexpected desire to accompany the empress on the trip suspicious too. In addition, the king’s body was not shown to the people before burial; farewell took place with a closed coffin. The imminent death of the emperor's wife gave rise to even more rumors - Elizabeth died six months later.

The Emperor is an Elder

In 1830-1840 the deceased tsar began to be identified with a certain old man Fyodor Kuzmich, whose features resembled the emperor, and also had excellent manners, not characteristic of a simple tramp. There were rumors among the population that the emperor's double was buried, and the tsar himself lived under the name of the elder until 1864, while Empress Elizaveta Alekseevna herself was also identified with the hermit Vera the Silent.

The question of whether Elder Fyodor Kuzmich and Alexander are the same person has still not been clarified; only genetic examination can dot the i's.

Alexander's childhood was spent at the intellectual court. His education was carried out by the Swiss Jacobin Frederic Laharpe and the Russian aristocrat Nikolai Saltykov. Later, his father passed on to Alexander his love for the army and order. For some time, Alexander served in his father's Gatchina regiments. This is how the contradictory character of the future Russian emperor developed. in the last years of her reign she was going to bequeath the throne to Alexander, bypassing her son, but the highest state dignitaries did not allow her to do this. After ascending the throne, Alexander had to constantly prove his loyalty to his father. However, his attitude towards his father's policies was negative, and he became involved in the conspiracy of 1801, as a result of which he was killed. However, the tragic circumstances of March 11, 1801 had a strong impact on Alexander's psyche. Until the end of his days, he felt guilty for his father's death. Having ascended the throne, twenty-three-year-old Alexander I solemnly said to the courtiers: “With me everything will be as with my grandmother.” He immediately lifted the ban on the import of books imposed by his father, declared an amnesty for fugitives, restored the effect of the Charter to the nobility and cities, and liquidated the secret chancellery.

Even during his lifetime, a circle of young, progressive-minded people formed around Alexander (Stroganov, Kochubey, Czartoryski, Novosiltsov), who after Alexander’s accession began to play an important role in politics. They joined the so-called “Secret Committee”, which informally discussed the proposed reforms over a cup of tea. Among other changes, the possibility of limiting autocracy and transferring legislative functions to the Senate was discussed. But Alexander spoke out against this. The Senate was recognized as the highest administrative and judicial body, but only formally. In particular, he could express to the sovereign his opinion on decisions that contradict previously adopted laws. But as soon as in 1803 the Senate proposed to Alexander to reconsider the decree on the 12-year term of service for nobles of the non-commissioned rank, which contradicted the Charter, Alexander forbade the Senate to consider the laws he had signed, and ordered it to express its opinion only on orders issued during the previous reign. This act clearly revealed the essence of Alexander - outwardly he was inclined towards liberalism; this pleased his vanity, but he was not really ready to change anything. As a result, all the talk about reforms in the “Secret Committee” ended with some improvement of the administrative apparatus through the creation of the ministries of foreign affairs, military-land affairs, naval affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education. In the Ministries, in contrast to Peter's colleges, unity of command was introduced. The creation of ministries had nothing to do with constitutional reforms. Another attempt to develop reforms was the preparation of the so-called “charter to the Russian people,” the draft of which was entrusted to Vorontsov. The charter was supposed to define the rights of all classes of the population of Russia, including the peasantry, and the committee members did not consider it possible to give any rights to the landowner peasants, because they were afraid to affect the interests of the landowners. However, even such a project was not approved by the “Secret Committee”.

Among other acts of the pre-war period, it is worth noting the Decree on Free Plowmen of 1803, according to which landowners received the right to free serfs individually and in villages, with a mandatory allotment of land. For their will, the peasants paid a ransom or performed duties. If obligations were not fulfilled, the peasants returned to the landowner. The peasants who received their freedom in this way were called free or free cultivators; from 1848 they began to be called state peasants. In addition, in 1801, the “Permanent Council” of twelve persons was created, whose duties included the selection of laws necessary for the country, but it was not actually involved in its activities and was dissolved in 1810.

So, after the first years of his reign, Alexander got a taste of power and understood the advantages of autocratic rule. Disappointment in his immediate circle forced him to seek support in people personally devoted to him who were not members of the aristocracy. Such people were Alexey Arkcheev, Mikhail Barclay de Tolly and Mikhail Speransky. It was Secretary of State Speransky who initiated all the reforms of 1810-1812. First of all, he reformed finances, banning the issuance of new banknotes, reducing government spending and introducing new taxes that affected all segments of the population. Thanks to this, by 1812 state revenues increased from 125 to 300 million rubles. By the summer of 1811, the reorganization of ministries was completed. From now on, their activities became transparent and were carried out on the basis of the “General Charter”. Thus, Speransky acquired a lot of ill-wishers among the highest officials states that did not want change. In March 1812, under the influence of his inner circle, Alexander dismissed him.

Painting by A. Kivshenko

In foreign policy, Alexander counted on the creation of a collective security system in Europe, when all powers were bound to each other by treaties. However, the proclamation of France as Emperor confused all the cards. The Russian emperor considered the French emperor a symbol of violation of the legitimacy of the world order. In May 1804, the Russian side recalled its ambassador from France and began to prepare for a new war. However, Alexander clearly overestimated his strength. In November 1805, the troops of the anti-French coalition were defeated at Austerlitz, and the Russian army was actually commanded by Alexander I himself. Alexander refused to ratify the peace treaty with France signed in June 1806, and only the defeat at Friedland in May 1807 forced the Russian emperor to agree.

In June 1807, Alexander’s first meeting took place in Tilsit. An alliance and agreement was concluded between Russia and France on the division of zones of influence, which gave Russia the necessary respite. However, relations between the two emperors soon began to deteriorate. Alexander was not happy with the creation of a sovereign. In 1810, Alexander refused, who asked for the hand of his sister Grand Duchess Anna Pavlovna (she later became queen). There is an assumption that Alexander was going to launch a pre-emptive strike, but after he entered into alliance agreements with and, Russia began to prepare for a defensive war. On June 12, 1812, French troops crossed the Russian border. The Patriotic War of 1812 began.

The invasion of Napoleonic troops into Russia was regarded by Alexander as a personal insult. However, remembering Austerlitz, the emperor left the theater of military operations for St. Petersburg, transferring command of the army to Barclay de Tolly. However, his retreat maneuver caused such a storm of criticism in society that Alexander was forced to replace Mikhail Bogdanovich with Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov. With Kutuzov, the Russian army continued to retreat anyway. On August 26, the largest battle of the Patriotic War took place near Borodino. In Russian historiography it is traditionally believed that the Russian army won this battle, but in fact the outcome of the Battle of Borodino remained uncertain: neither side could consider itself the winner. Moreover, due to heavy losses, Kutuzov ordered the retreat to continue and was even forced to surrender Moscow.

As a result of a tactical maneuver, Kutuzov managed to take a break and wait for reinforcements, while cutting off the routes for the French army to bring in supplies and retreat. At the same time, Napoleonic army was forced to spend several weeks in Moscow, abandoned by its residents and burned down. Suffering from cold and hunger, the morally decayed French army was forced to flee Russia in disgrace. During the Russian Campaign, Napoleon lost approximately 95% of his army. The Russian army continued to pursue the enemy. M.I. Kutuzov, unfortunately, did not live to see complete victory - he died on April 4, 1813 in the town of Bunzlau in Silesia. However, Emperor Alexander returned to the army and was at its head during the entire Foreign campaigns of 1813-14.

Painting by A. Kivshenko

In March 1814, the Russian army triumphantly entered Paris. The victory over Alexander significantly increased his international prestige. He felt himself a liberator of the peoples of Europe and considered it his mission to prevent further wars on the continent. He also considered the tranquility of Europe to be a necessary condition for the implementation of his reform plans in Russia itself. To ensure these conditions, the Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815, which determined the post-war structure of Europe. The territory was transferred to Russia, and the power of the Bourbons was restored, and Alexander insisted on the establishment of a constitutional-monarchical system in this country, which should have served as a precedent for the establishment of similar regimes in other countries. As a guarantor of compliance with the decisions of the Congress of Vienna, the emperor initiated the creation of the Holy Alliance (September 14, 1815) - the prototype of international organizations of the 20th century. Alexander directly participated in the activities of several congresses of the Holy Alliance. However, the growing Russian influence in Europe caused opposition from the allies. In 1825, the Holy Alliance essentially dissolved.

Having strengthened his authority as a result of the victory over the French, Alexander undertook a number of internal political reforms. Back in 1809, after the victory over Sweden, the Grand Duchy of Finland was created, which essentially became autonomous with its own Diet, without whose sanction the emperor could not make any important decisions. In May 1815, Alexander announced the granting of a constitution, which provided for the creation of a bicameral Sejm, a system of local government and freedom of the press. In 1817-1818, those close to the emperor began developing projects for the gradual elimination of serfdom in Russia. By 1820, Novosiltsev prepared a draft constitutional reform, but its introduction was postponed indefinitely. Former ideals increasingly seemed to Alexander to be just barren romantic dreams and illusions, divorced from real political practice. The uprising of the Semenovsky regiment in 1820 was perceived by the emperor as a revolutionary threat, to prevent which tough measures were necessary.

In 1817, instead of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Spiritual Affairs and Public Education was created, which was headed by the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod Golitsyn. Under his leadership, the professorial staff of many universities was destroyed and strict censorship reigned. In 1822, Alexander banned the activities of Masonic lodges and other secret societies in Russia and approved a Senate proposal that allowed landowners to exile their peasants to Siberia for “bad deeds.” Alexey Andreevich Arakcheev gained particular influence over Alexander, on whose initiative military settlements were established in 1815 - the most striking manifestation of conservatism in the emperor’s policy. At the same time, Alexander was aware of the activities of the first Decembrist organizations, but did not take any measures against their members, believing that they shared the delusions of his youth.

In 1825, the health of the emperor's wife, Elizaveta Alekseevna, deteriorated. She was prescribed a trip to the south. For this purpose, Taganrog was chosen on the shores of the Azov Sea. During the trip, Alexander visited Novocherkassk and Crimea. He returned to Taganrog with a severe cold and died of typhus on November 19, 1825. While taking the body of her husband to St. Petersburg, the empress died along the way. At the same time, there is a legend that Alexander only faked his death, and he himself left Taganrog incognito and went to Siberia, where he lived for a long time under the name of Elder Fyodor Kuzmich. Many who saw the elder noted his amazing resemblance to the emperor. The legend is refuted by the surviving bulletins about the progress of the king’s illness and many other official documents, letters, memoirs, and reports of persons who witnessed his death. And yet, belief in this legend continues to this day. But when the Soviet government opened the tomb of Alexander I in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in 1926, it turned out to be empty.

Son of Pavel Petrovich and Empress Maria Feodorovna; genus. in St. Petersburg on December 12, 1777, ascended the throne on March 12, 1801, † in Taganrog on November 19, 1825. Great Catherine did not love her son Pavel Petrovich, but took care of raising her grandson, who, for these purposes, however, deprived of maternal care early. The empress tried to raise his upbringing to the heights of contemporary pedagogical requirements. She wrote “grandmother’s alphabet” with didactic anecdotes, and in the instructions given to the teacher of the Grand Dukes Alexander and (his brother) Konstantin, Count (later Prince) N.I. Saltykov, with the highest rescript of March 13, 1784, she expressed her thoughts " regarding health and its preservation; regarding the continuation and reinforcement of an inclination towards goodness, regarding virtue, courtesy and knowledge" and rules for "supervisors regarding their behavior with pupils." These instructions are built on the principles of abstract liberalism and are imbued with the pedagogical ideas of “Emile” Rousseau. The implementation of this plan was entrusted to various persons. The conscientious Swiss Laharpe, an admirer of republican ideas and political freedom, was in charge of the Grand Duke’s mental education, reading with him Demosthenes and Mably, Tacitus and Gibbon, Locke and Rousseau; he managed to earn the respect and friendship of his student. La Harpe was helped by Kraft, a professor of physics, the famous Pallas, who read botany, and the mathematician Masson. The Russian language was taught by the famous sentimental writer and moralist M. N. Muravyov, and the law of God was taught by Archpriest. A. A. Samborsky, a more secular person, devoid of deep religious feelings. Finally, Count N.I. Saltykov cared mainly about preserving the health of the grand dukes and enjoyed Alexander’s favor until his death. The education given to the Grand Duke did not have a strong religious and national basis; it did not develop personal initiative in him and protected him from contact with Russian reality. On the other hand, it was too abstract for a young man of 10-14 years old and skimmed the surface of his mind without penetrating deeper. Therefore, although such an upbringing aroused in the Grand Duke a number of humane feelings and vague ideas of a liberal nature, it did not give either one or the other a definite form and did not give young Alexander the means to implement them, therefore, it was devoid of practical significance. The results of this upbringing affected Alexander’s character. They largely explain his impressionability, humanity, attractive appeal, but at the same time some inconsistency. The education itself was interrupted due to the early marriage of the Grand Duke (16 years old) to the 14-year-old Princess Louise of Baden, Grand Duchess Elisaveta Alekseevna. From a young age, Alexander was in a rather difficult position between his father and grandmother. Often, having attended parades and exercises in Gatchina in the morning, in an awkward uniform, he would appear in the evening among the refined and witty society that gathered in the Hermitage. The need to behave completely rationally in these two areas taught the Grand Duke to secrecy, and the discrepancy that he encountered between the theories instilled in him and the bare Russian reality instilled in him distrust of people and disappointment. The changes that took place in court life and social order after the death of the empress could not favorably influence Alexander's character. Although at that time he served as the St. Petersburg military governor, he was also a member of the Council, the Senate, and the chief of the lieutenant government. Semenovsky regiment and presided over the military department, but did not enjoy the trust of Emperor Pavel Petrovich. Despite the difficult situation in which he was Grand Duke at the court of Emperor Paul, he already at that time showed humanity and meekness in his treatment of his subordinates; These properties so seduced everyone that even a person with a heart of stone, according to Speransky, could not resist such treatment. Therefore, when Alexander Pavlovich ascended the throne on March 12, 1801, he was greeted by the most joyful public mood. Difficult political and administrative tasks awaited resolution from the young ruler. Still little experienced in matters of government, he preferred to adhere to the political views of his great grandmother, Empress Catherine, and in a manifesto dated March 12, 1801, he announced his intention to govern the people entrusted to him by God according to the laws and “according to the heart” of the late empress.

The Treaty of Basel, concluded between Prussia and France, forced Empress Catherine to join England in a coalition against France. With the accession of Emperor Paul to the throne, the coalition disintegrated, but was resumed again in 1799. In the same year, the alliance of Russia with Austria and England was broken again; A rapprochement was discovered between the St. Petersburg and Berlin courts, and peaceful relations began with the first consul (1800). Emperor Alexander hastened to restore peace with England by a convention on June 5 and concluded peace treaties on September 26 with France and Spain; At the same time, there was a decree on the free passage of foreigners and Russians abroad, as was the case before 1796. Having thus restored peaceful relations with the powers, the emperor devoted almost all his energy to internal, transformative activities for the first four years of his reign. Alexander's transformative activity was primarily aimed at destroying those orders of the past reign that modified the social order destined by the great Catherine. Two manifestos, signed on April 2, 1801, restored: the charter granted to the nobility, the city status and the charter given to cities; Soon after, the law was re-approved, exempting priests and deacons, along with personal nobles, from corporal punishment. The secret expedition (however, established under Catherine II) was destroyed by the manifesto of April 2, and on September 15 it was ordered to establish a commission to review previous criminal cases; this commission really eased the fate of persons “whose guilt was unintentional and more related to the opinion and way of thinking of that time than to dishonest deeds that actually harmed the state.” Finally, torture was abolished, it was allowed to import foreign books and notes, as well as open private printing houses, as was the case before 1796. The transformations, however, consisted not only of restoring the order that existed before 1796, but also of replenishing it with new orders . The reform of local institutions that took place under Catherine did not affect central institutions; and yet they also demanded restructuring. Emperor Alexander set about completing this difficult task. His collaborators in this activity were: insightful and knowledgeable about England better than Russia gr. V.P. Kochubey, smart, learned and capable N.N. Novosiltsev, admirer of English customs, Prince. A. Czartoryski, a Pole by sympathies, and gr. P. A. Stroganov, who received an exclusively French upbringing. Soon after ascending the throne, the sovereign established, instead of a temporary council, an indispensable council, which was subject to consideration of all the most important state affairs and draft regulations. Manifesto of September 8 1802, the significance of the Senate was defined, which was entrusted with “considering the actions of ministers in all parts of their administration entrusted and, based on proper comparison and consideration of them with state regulations and with reports that reached the Senate directly from the localities, draw their conclusions and submit a report” to the sovereign. The Senate retains the role of the highest court; Only the First Department retained administrative significance. By the same manifesto on September 8. the central administration is divided between 8 newly established ministries, which are the ministries: military, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, finance, commerce and public education. Each ministry was under the control of a minister, to whom (in the ministries of the interior and foreign affairs, justice, finance and public education) was attached a comrade. All ministers were members State Council and were present in the Senate. These transformations, however, were carried out rather hastily, so that the previous institutions were faced with a new administrative order that had not yet been fully defined. The Ministry of Internal Affairs received a more complete structure earlier than others (in 1803). - In addition to a more or less systematic reform of central institutions, during the same period (1801-1805) separate orders were made regarding social relations and measures were taken to spread public education. The right to own land, on the one hand, and engage in trade, on the other, is extended to different classes of the population. Decree 12 Dec. 1801 The merchants, philistines and state-owned villagers were given the right to acquire land. On the other hand, landowners were allowed in 1802 to carry out foreign wholesale trade with the payment of guild duties, and also in 1812, peasants were allowed to carry out trade from own name, but only on an annual certificate taken from the county treasury with payment of the required fees. Emperor Alexander sympathized with the idea of ​​emancipating the peasants; To this end, several important measures were taken. Under the influence of the project for the liberation of peasants submitted by Count. S.P. Rumyantsev, a law was issued on free cultivators (February 20, 1803). According to this law, peasants could enter into transactions with landowners, free themselves from the land and, without registering in another state, continued to be called free cultivators. It is also prohibited to make publications about the sale of peasants without land, the distribution of inhabited estates was stopped, and the regulation on the peasants of the Livonia province, approved on February 20, 1804, eased their fate. Along with administrative and estate reforms, the revision of laws continued in the commission, the management of which was entrusted to Count Zavadovsky on June 5, 1801, and a draft code began to be drawn up. This code was supposed, in the opinion of the sovereign, to complete a number of reforms he had undertaken and “to protect the rights of one and all,” but remained unfulfilled, except for one general part (Code général). But if the administrative and social order had not yet been reduced to the general principles of state law in legislative monuments, then in any case it was spiritualized thanks to an increasingly broader system of public education. On September 8, 1802, a commission (then the main board) of schools was established; she developed regulations on the organization of educational institutions in Russia. The rules of this regulation on the establishment of schools, divided into parish, district, provincial or gymnasiums and universities, on orders for the educational and economic part were approved on January 24, 1803. The Academy of Sciences was restored in St. Petersburg, new regulations and staff were issued for it in 1804. A pedagogical institute was founded, and in 1805 universities were founded in Kazan and Kharkov. In 1805, P. G. Demidov donated significant capital for the device higher school in Yaroslavl, gr. Bezborodko did the same for Nezhin; the nobility of the Kharkov province petitioned for the founding of a university in Kharkov and provided funds for this. Technical institutions were founded, such as: a commercial school in Moscow (in 1804), commercial gymnasiums in Odessa and Taganrog (1804); the number of gymnasiums and schools has been increased.

But all this peaceful transformative activity was soon to cease. Emperor Alexander, unaccustomed to the stubborn struggle with those practical difficulties that so often encountered him on the way to the implementation of his plans, and surrounded by inexperienced young advisers who were too little familiar with Russian reality, soon cooled towards reforms. Meanwhile, the dull rumbles of war, approaching, if not Russia, then its neighboring Austria, began to attract his attention and opened up a new field of diplomatic and military activity for him. Soon after the Peace of Amiens (March 25, 1802), a rupture between England and France followed again (early 1803) and hostile relations between France and Austria were renewed. Misunderstandings also arose between Russia and France. Patronage provided by the Russian government to Dantreg, who was in Russian service with Christen, and the arrest of the latter by the French government, violation of the articles of the secret convention of October 11 (New Art.), 1801 on preserving the integrity of the possessions of the King of the Two Sicilies, execution of the Duke of Enghien (March 1804) and the acceptance of the imperial title by the first consul - led to a break with Russia (August 1804). It was therefore natural for Russia to draw closer to England and Sweden at the beginning of 1805 and to join the same union with Austria, friendly relations with which began as early as the accession of Emperor Alexander to the throne. The war opened unsuccessfully: the shameful defeat of the Austrian troops at Ulm forced the Russian forces sent to help Austria, led by Kutuzov, to retreat from Inn to Moravia. The affairs of Krems, Gollabrun and Schöngraben were only ominous harbingers of the Austerlitz defeat (November 20, 1805), in which Emperor Alexander stood at the head of the Russian army. The results of this defeat were reflected in the retreat of Russian troops to Radziwill, in the uncertain and then hostile relations of Prussia towards Russia and Austria, in the conclusion of the Peace of Presburg (December 26, 1805) and the Schönbrunn Defensive and Offensive Alliance. Before the Austerlitz defeat, Prussia's relations with Russia remained extremely uncertain. Although Emperor Alexander managed to persuade the weak Friedrich Wilhelm to approve a secret declaration on May 12, 1804 regarding the war against France, it was already violated on June 1 by new conditions concluded by the Prussian king with France. The same fluctuations are noticeable after Napoleon's victories in Austria. During a personal meeting, imp. Alexandra and the king in Potsdam concluded the Potsdam Convention on October 22. 1805. According to this convention, the king pledged to contribute to the restoration of the terms of the Peace of Luneville violated by Napoleon, to accept military mediation between the warring powers, and if such mediation failed, he had to join the Coalition. But the Peace of Schönbrunn (December 15, 1805) and even more so the Paris Convention (February 1806), approved by the King of Prussia, showed how little one could hope for the consistency of Prussian policy. Nevertheless, the declaration and counter-declaration, signed on July 12, 1806 in Charlottenburg and on Kamenny Island, revealed a rapprochement between Prussia and Russia, a rapprochement that was enshrined in the Bartenstein Convention (April 14, 1807). But already in the second half of 1806 a new war broke out. The campaign began on October 8, was marked by terrible defeats of the Prussian troops at Jena and Auerstedt and would have ended with the complete conquest of Prussia if Russian troops had not come to the aid of the Prussians. Under the command of M. F. Kamensky, who was soon replaced by Bennigsen, these troops put up strong resistance to Napoleon at Pultusk, then were forced to retreat after the battles of Morungen, Bergfried, Landsberg. Although after the bloody battle of Preussisch-Eylau the Russians also retreated, Napoleon’s losses were so significant that he unsuccessfully sought an opportunity to enter into peace negotiations with Bennigsen and corrected his affairs only with a victory at Friedland (June 14, 1807). Emperor Alexander did not take part in this campaign, perhaps because he was still under the impression of the Austerlitz defeat and only on April 2. 1807 arrived in Memel for a meeting with the King of Prussia, who had been deprived of almost all his possessions. Failure at Friedland forced him to agree to peace. The whole party at the court of the sovereign and the army wished for peace; in addition, they were prompted by the ambiguous behavior of Austria and the emperor’s dissatisfaction with England; finally, Napoleon himself needed the same peace. On June 25, a meeting took place between Emperor Alexander and Napoleon, who managed to charm the sovereign with his intelligence and insinuating appeal, and on the 27th of the same month the Tilsit Treaty was concluded. According to this treaty, Russia acquired the Bialystok region; Emperor Alexander ceded Cattaro and the republic of 7 islands to Napoleon, and the Principality of Jevre to Louis of Holland, recognized Napoleon as emperor, Joseph of Naples as king of the Two Sicilies, and also agreed to recognize the titles of the rest of Napoleon's brothers, the present and future titles of members of the Confederation of the Rhine. Emperor Alexander took upon himself mediation between France and England and, in turn, agreed to Napoleon's mediation between Russia and the Porte. Finally, according to the same peace, “out of respect for Russia,” his possessions were returned to the Prussian king. - The Treaty of Tilsit was confirmed by the Erfurt Convention (September 30, 1808), and Napoleon then agreed to the annexation of Moldavia and Wallachia to Russia.

During a meeting in Tilsit, Napoleon, wanting to divert Russian forces, pointed Emperor Alexander to Finland and even earlier (in 1806) armed Turkey against Russia. The reason for the war with Sweden was Gustav IV’s dissatisfaction with the Peace of Tilsit and his reluctance to enter into armed neutrality, restored due to Russia’s break with England (October 25, 1807). War was declared on March 16, 1808. Russian troops, under the command of gr. Buxhoeveden, then gr. Kamensky, occupied Sveaborg (April 22), won victories at Alovo, Kuortan and especially at Orovais, then crossed the ice from Abo to the Åland Islands in the winter of 1809 under the command of Prince. Bagration, from Vasa to Umeå and through Torneo to Westrabotnia under the leadership of Barclay de Tolly and c. Shuvalova. The successes of the Russian troops and the change of government in Sweden contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Friedrichsham (September 5, 1809) with the new king, Charles XIII. According to this world, Russia acquired Finland before the river. Torneo with the Åland Islands. Emperor Alexander himself visited Finland, opened the Diet and “preserved the faith, fundamental laws, rights and benefits that hitherto were enjoyed by each class in particular and all the inhabitants of Finland in general according to their constitutions.” A committee was set up in St. Petersburg and a state secretary for Finnish affairs was appointed; in Finland itself, executive power was vested in the Governor-General, and legislative power was vested in the Government Council, which later became known as the Finnish Senate. - The war with Turkey was less successful. The occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by Russian troops in 1806 led to this war; but before the Peace of Tilsit, hostile actions were limited to Michelson’s attempts to occupy Zhurzha, Ishmael and some friends. fortress, as well as the successful actions of the Russian fleet under the command of Senyavin against the Turkish, which suffered a severe defeat at Fr. Lemnos. The Peace of Tilsit temporarily stopped the war; but it resumed after the Erfurt meeting due to the Porte’s refusal to cede Moldavia and Wallachia. Failures of the book. Prozorovsky was soon corrected by the brilliant victory of Count. Kamensky at Batyn (near Rushchuk) and the defeat of the Turkish army at Slobodza on the left bank of the Danube, under the command of Kutuzov, who was appointed to replace the deceased gr. Kamensky. The successes of Russian weapons forced the Sultan to peace, but the peace negotiations dragged on for a very long time, and the sovereign, dissatisfied with Kutuzov’s slowness, had already appointed Admiral Chichagov as commander-in-chief when he learned of the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace (May 16, 1812). ). According to this peace, Russia acquired Bessarabia with the fortresses of Khotin, Bendery, Akkerman, Kiliya, Izmail to the Prut River, and Serbia acquired internal autonomy. - Along with the wars in Finland and the Danube, Russian weapons also had to fight in the Caucasus. After the unsuccessful management of Georgia, Gen. Knorring appointed Prince General Governor of Georgia. Tsitsianov. He conquered the Jaro-Belokan region and Ganja, which he renamed Elisavetopol, but was treacherously killed during the siege of Baku (1806). - When controlling gr. Gudovich and Tormasov annexed Mingrelia, Abkhazia and Imereti, and the exploits of Kotlyarevsky (the defeat of Abbas-Mirza, the capture of Lankaran and the conquest of the Talshin Khanate) contributed to the conclusion of the Peace of Gulistan (October 12, 1813), the conditions of which changed after some acquisitions made by Mr. . Ermolov, commander-in-chief of Georgia since 1816.

All these wars, although they ended in quite important territorial acquisitions, had a detrimental effect on the state of the national and state economy. In 1801-1804. government revenues about 100 million were collected. annually, there were up to 260 m of banknotes in circulation, the external debt did not exceed 47¼ million silver. rubles, the deficit was insignificant. Meanwhile, in 1810, income decreased by two and then four times. Banknotes were issued for 577 million rubles, external debt increased to 100 million rubles, and there was a deficit of 66 million rubles. Accordingly, the value of the ruble fell sharply. In 1801-1804. the silver ruble accounted for 1¼ and 11/5 banknotes, and on April 9, 1812 it was supposed to count 1 ruble. silver equal to 3 rubles. assig. The brave hand of a former student of the St. Petersburg Alexander Seminary brought the state economy out of such a difficult situation. Thanks to the activities of Speransky (especially the manifestos of February 2, 1810, January 29 and February 11, 1812), the issue of banknotes was stopped, the capitation salary and quitrent tax were increased, a new progressive income tax, new indirect taxes and duties were established. The coin system was also transformed by the manifest. dated June 20, 1810. The results of the transformations were already partly felt in 1811, when income was received for 355 1/2 m.r. (= 89 m. rub. silver), expenses extended only to 272 m. rub., arrears were 43 m., and debt was 61 m. This entire financial crisis was caused by a series of difficult wars. But these wars after the Peace of Tilsit no longer absorbed all the attention of Emperor Alexander. Unsuccessful wars of 1805-1807. instilled in him distrust of his own military abilities; he again turned his energies to internal transformative activities, especially since he now had such a talented assistant as Speransky. The project of reforms, drawn up by Speransky in a liberal spirit and bringing into the system the thoughts expressed by the sovereign himself, was implemented only to a small extent. Decree 6 Aug. In 1809, rules for promotion to ranks in the civil service and tests in the sciences for promotion to the 8th and 9th grades of officials without university certificates were promulgated. By the manifesto of January 1, 1810, the former “permanent” council was transformed into a state council with legislative significance. “In the order of state regulations,” the Council constituted “an estate in which all parts of government in their main relations to legislation” were considered and through it ascended to the supreme imperial power. Therefore, “all laws, charters and institutions in their original outlines were proposed and considered in the State Council and then, through the action of the sovereign power, they were carried out for their intended implementation.” The State Council was divided into four departments: the department of laws included everything that was essentially the subject of the law; the commission of laws had to submit to this department all the original drafts of the laws compiled in it. The Department of Military Affairs included the “subjects” of the Ministries of War and Navy. The department of civil and spiritual affairs included the affairs of justice, the spiritual administration and the police. Finally, the department of state economy included “subjects of general industry, science, trade, finance, treasury and accounts.” At the State Council there were: a commission for drafting laws, a commission for petitions, and a state chancellery. Along with the transformation of the State Council by the manifesto of July 25, 1810, two new institutions were attached to the former ministries: the Ministry of Police and the Main Directorate for Audit of Public Accounts. On the contrary, the affairs of the Ministry of Commerce are distributed between the Ministries of Internal Affairs and Finance, and the Ministries itself. Commerce has been abolished. - Along with the reform of the central government, transformations continued in the field of spiritual education. The church's candle income, allocated for the costs of establishing religious schools (1807), made it possible to increase their number. In 1809, a theological academy was opened in St. Petersburg and in 1814 - in the Sergius Lavra; in 1810 the Corps of Railway Engineers was established, in 1811 the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was founded, and in 1814 the Public Library was opened.

But the second period of transformative activity was also disrupted by a new war. Already soon after the Erfurt Convention, disagreements between Russia and France emerged. By virtue of this convention, Emperor Alexander deployed the 30,000th detachment of the allied army in Galicia during the Austrian War of 1809. But this detachment, which was under the command of Prince. S. F. Golitsyn, acted hesitantly, since Napoleon’s obvious desire to restore or at least significantly strengthen Poland and his refusal to approve the convention of December 23. 1809, which protected Russia from such a strengthening, aroused strong fears on the part of the Russian government. The emergence of disagreement intensified under the influence of new circumstances. The tariff for 1811, issued on December 19, 1810, aroused Napoleon's displeasure. Another treaty in 1801 restored peaceful trade relations with France, and in 1802 the trade agreement concluded in 1786 was extended for 6 years. But already in 1804 it was forbidden to bring all kinds of paper fabrics along the western border, and in 1805. duties on some silk and woolen products were increased in order to encourage local, Russian production. The government was guided by the same goals in 1810. The new tariff increased duties on wine, wood, cocoa, coffee and granulated sugar; foreign paper (except white ones for branding), linen, silk, wool and the like are prohibited; Russian goods, flax, hemp, lard, linseed, sailing and flax linen, potash and resin are subject to the highest export duty. On the contrary, the import of raw foreign works and the duty-free export of iron from Russian factories are allowed. The new tariff harmed French trade and infuriated Napoleon, who demanded that Emperor Alexander accept the French tariff and not accept not only English, but also neutral (American) ships into Russian harbors. Soon after the publication of the new tariff, the Duke of Oldenburg, the uncle of Emperor Alexander, was deprived of his possessions, and the sovereign’s protest, circularly expressed on this issue on March 12, 1811, remained without consequences. After these clashes, war was inevitable. Already in 1810, Scharngorst assured that Napoleon had a war plan against Russia ready. In 1811, Prussia entered into an alliance with France, then Austria. In the summer of 1812, Napoleon moved with the allied troops through Prussia and on June 11 crossed the Neman between Kovno and Grodno, with 600,000 troops. Emperor Alexander had military forces three times smaller; They were headed by: Barclay de Tolly and Prince. Bagration in the Vilna and Grodno provinces. But behind this relatively small army stood the entire Russian people, not to mention individuals and the nobility of entire provinces; all of Russia voluntarily fielded up to 320,000 warriors and donated at least a hundred million rubles. After the first clashes between Barclay near Vitebsk and Bagration near Mogilev with French troops, as well as Napoleon’s unsuccessful attempt to go behind the Russian troops and occupy Smolensk, Barclay began to retreat along the Dorogobuzh road. Raevsky, and then Dokhturov (with Konovnitsyn and Neverovsky) managed to repel two attacks of Napoleon on Smolensk; but after the second attack, Dokhturov had to leave Smolensk and join the retreating army. Despite the retreat, Emperor Alexander left Napoleon's attempt to start peace negotiations without consequences, but was forced to replace Barclay, who was unpopular among the troops, with Kutuzov. The last one arrived in main apartment in Tsarevo Zaimishche on August 17, and on the 26th he fought the battle of Borodino. The outcome of the battle remained unresolved, but the Russian troops continued to retreat to Moscow, whose population was strongly incited against the French, by the way, by the posters of the gr. Trampling. The military council in Fili on the evening of September 1 decided to leave Moscow, which was occupied by Napoleon on September 3, but was soon abandoned (October 7) due to a lack of supplies, severe fires and the decline of military discipline. Meanwhile, Kutuzov (probably on the advice of Tol) turned from the Ryazan road, along which he was retreating, to Kaluga and gave battles to Napoleon at Tarutin and Maloyaroslavets. Cold, hunger, unrest in the army, rapid retreat, successful actions of the partisans (Davydov, Figner, Seslavin, Samusya), the victories of Miloradovich at Vyazma, Ataman Platov at Vopi, Kutuzov at Krasny led the French army into complete disorder, and after the disastrous crossing of the Berezina forced Napoleon, before reaching Vilna, to flee to Paris. On December 25, 1812, a manifesto was issued on the final expulsion of the French from Russia. The Patriotic War was over; she made strong changes in the spiritual life of Emperor Alexander. In a difficult time of national disasters and mental anxieties, he began to look for support in religious feeling and in this regard found support in the state. secret Shishkov, who now occupied the place empty after the removal of Speransky even before the start of the war. The successful outcome of this war further developed in the sovereign his faith in the inscrutable ways of Divine Providence and the conviction that the Russian Tsar had a difficult political task: to establish peace in Europe on the basis of justice, the sources of which the religiously minded soul of Emperor Alexander began to seek in the gospel teachings . Kutuzov, Shishkov, partly gr. Rumyantsev were against continuing the war abroad. But Emperor Alexander, supported by Stein, firmly decided to continue military operations. January 1, 1813 Russian troops crossed the border of the empire and found themselves in Prussia. Already on December 18, 1812, York, the head of the Prussian detachment sent to help the French troops, entered into an agreement with Diebitsch on the neutrality of the German troops, although, however, he did not have permission from the Prussian government. The Kalisz Treaty (February 15-16, 1813) concluded a defensive-offensive alliance with Prussia, confirmed by the Teplitsky Treaty (August 1813). Meanwhile, Russian troops under the command of Wittgenstein, together with the Prussians, were defeated in the battles of Lutzen and Bautzen (April 20 and May 9). After the armistice and the so-called Prague Conferences, which resulted in Austria joining an alliance against Napoleon under the Reichenbach Convention (June 15, 1813), hostilities resumed. After a successful battle for Napoleon at Dresden and unsuccessful battles at Kulm, Brienne, Laon, Arsis-sur-Aube and Fer Champenoise, Paris surrendered on March 18, 1814, the Peace of Paris was concluded (May 18) and Napoleon was overthrown. Soon after, on May 26, 1815, the Congress of Vienna opened mainly to discuss Polish, Saxon and Greek issues. Emperor Alexander was with the army throughout the campaign and insisted on the occupation of Paris by the allied forces. According to the main act of the Congress of Vienna (June 28, 1816), Russia acquired part of the Duchy of Warsaw, except for the Grand Duchy of Poznan, given to Prusia, and the part ceded to Austria, and in the Polish possessions annexed to Russia, Emperor Alexander introduced a constitution drawn up in liberal spirit. Peace negotiations at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's attempt to regain the French throne. Russian troops again moved from Poland to the banks of the Rhine, and Emperor Alexander left Vienna for Heidelberg. But Napoleon's hundred-day reign ended with his defeat at Waterloo and the restoration of the legitimate dynasty in the person of Louis XVIII under the difficult conditions of the second Peace of Paris (November 8, 1815). Wanting to establish peaceful international relationships Between the Christian sovereigns of Europe, on the basis of brotherly love and the commandments of the Gospel, Emperor Alexander drew up an act of the Holy Alliance, signed by himself, the King of Prussia and the Austrian Emperor. International relations were supported by congresses in Aachen (1818), where it was decided to withdraw the Allied troops from France, in Troppau (1820) due to unrest in Spain, Laibach (1821) - due to the indignation in Savoy and the Neapolitan revolution, and, finally, in Verona (1822) - to pacify the indignation in Spain and discuss the eastern question.

A direct result of the difficult wars of 1812-1814. there was a deterioration in the state economy. By January 1, 1814, only 587½ million rubles were listed in the parish; internal debts reached 700 million rubles, the Dutch debt extended to 101½ million guilders (= 54 million rubles), and the silver ruble in 1815 was worth 4 rubles. 15 k. assig. How lasting these consequences were is revealed by the state of Russian finances ten years later. In 1825, state revenues were only 529½ million rubles, banknotes were issued for 595 1/3 million rubles, which, together with the Dutch and some other debts, amounted to 350½ million rubles. ser. It is true that in terms of trade, more significant successes are being noticed. In 1814, the import of goods did not exceed 113½ million rubles, and the export - 196 million appropriations; in 1825 the import of goods reached 185½ million. rubles, the export amounted to 236½ mil. rub. But the wars of 1812-1814 had other consequences as well. The restoration of free political and trade relations between the European powers also caused the publication of several new tariffs. In the tariff of 1816, some changes were made compared to the tariff of 1810; the tariff of 1819 greatly reduced prohibitive duties on some foreign goods, but already in the orders of 1820 and 1821. and the new tariff of 1822 there was a noticeable return to the previous protective system. With the fall of Napoleon, the relationship he had established between the political forces of Europe collapsed. Emperor Alexander took upon himself a new definition of their relationship. This task diverted the sovereign’s attention from the internal transformative activities of previous years, especially since the former admirers of English constitutionalism were no longer at the throne at that time, and the brilliant theorist and supporter of French institutions Speransky was replaced over time by a stern formalist, chairman of the military department of the State Council and the chief commander of military settlements, the naturally poorly gifted Count Arakcheev. However, in government orders of the last decade of the reign of Emperor Alexander, traces of previous transformative ideas are sometimes still noticeable. On May 28, 1816, the project of the Estonian nobility for the final liberation of the peasants was approved. The Courland nobility followed the example of the Estonian nobles at the invitation of the government itself, which approved the same project regarding the Courland peasants on August 25, 1817 and regarding the Livland peasants on March 26, 1819. Along with the class orders, several changes were made in the central and regional administration. By decree of September 4, 1819, the Ministry of Police was annexed to the Ministry of the Interior, from which the Department of Manufactures and Internal Trade was transferred to the Ministry of Finance. In May 1824, the affairs of the Holy Synod were separated from the Ministry of Public Education, where they were transferred according to the manifesto of October 24, 1817, and where only affairs of foreign confessions remained. Even earlier, the manifesto of May 7, 1817 established a council of credit institutions, both for audits and verification of all operations, and for the consideration and conclusion of all assumptions regarding the credit part. At the same time (manif. April 2, 1817) the replacement of the tax-farm system with the government sale of wine dates back to that time; The management of drinking fees is concentrated in the state chambers. Regarding regional administration, an attempt was also made shortly thereafter to distribute the Great Russian provinces into general governorships. Government activities also continued to have an impact on public education. In 1819, public courses were organized at the St. Petersburg Pedagogical Institute, which laid the foundation for St. Petersburg University. In 1820 the engineering school was transformed and the artillery school was founded; The Richelieu Lyceum was established in Odessa in 1816. Schools of mutual education following the method of Behl and Lancaster began to spread. In 1813, the Bible Society was founded, to which the sovereign soon provided significant financial benefits. In 1814, the Imperial Public Library was opened in St. Petersburg. Private citizens followed the government's lead. Gr. Rumyantsev constantly donated funds for the printing of sources (for example, for the publication of Russian chronicles - 25,000 rubles) and scientific research. At the same time, journalistic and literary activities developed greatly. Already in 1803, the Ministry of Public Education published a “periodic essay on the successes of public education,” and the Ministry of Internal Affairs published the St. Petersburg Journal (since 1804). But these official publications did not have the same importance as they received: “Bulletin of Europe” (from 1802) by M. Kachenovsky and N. Karamzin, “Son of the Fatherland” by N. Grech (from 1813), “Notes of the Fatherland” by P. Svinin (from 1818), "Siberian Bulletin" by G. Spassky (1818-1825), "Northern Archive" by F. Bulgarin (1822-1838), which later merged with "Son of the Fatherland". The publications of the Moscow Society of History and Antiquities, founded back in 1804, were distinguished by their scholarly character. (“Proceedings” and “Chronicles”, as well as “Russian monuments” - since 1815). At the same time, V. Zhukovsky, I. Dmitriev and I. Krylov, V. Ozerov and A. Griboyedov acted, the sad sounds of Batyushkov’s lyre were heard, the mighty voice of Pushkin was already heard and Baratynsky’s poems began to be published. Meanwhile, Karamzin was publishing his “History of the Russian State”, and developing more specific issues historical science A. Shletser, N. Bantysh-Kamensky, K. Kalaidovich, A. Vostokov, Evgeniy Bolkhovitinov (Metropolitan of Kiev), M. Kachenovsky, G. Evers were engaged in the work. Unfortunately, this mental movement was subjected to repressive measures, partly under the influence of the unrest that occurred abroad and was echoed to a small extent in the Russian troops, partly due to the increasingly religious-conservative direction that the sovereign’s own way of thinking was taking. On August 1, 1822, all secret societies were prohibited; in 1823, it was not allowed to send young people to some of the German universities. In May 1824, the management of the Ministry of Public Education was entrusted to the famous adherent of Old Russian literary legends, Admiral A. S. Shishkov; Since that time, the Bible Society has ceased to meet and censorship conditions have been significantly constrained.

Emperor Alexander spent the last years of his life mostly in constant travel to the most remote corners of Russia or in almost complete solitude in Tsarskoe Selo. At this time, the main subject of his concerns was the Greek question. The uprising of the Greeks against the Turks, caused in 1821 by Alexander Ypsilanti, who was in Russian service, and the indignation in Morea and on the islands of the Archipelago caused a protest from Emperor Alexander. But the Sultan did not believe the sincerity of such a protest, and the Turks in Constantinople killed many Christians. Then the Russian ambassador, bar. Stroganov left Constantinople. War was inevitable, but, delayed by European diplomats, it broke out only after the death of the sovereign. Emperor Alexander † November 19, 1825 in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife Empress Elisaveta Alekseevna to improve her health.

The attitude of Emperor Alexander to the Greek question was quite clearly reflected in the features of the third stage of development that the political system he created experienced in last decade his reign. This system initially grew out of abstract liberalism; the latter gave way to political altruism, which in turn transformed into religious conservatism.

The most important works on the history of Emperor Alexander I: M. Bogdanovich,"The History of Emperor Alexander I", vol. VI (St. Petersburg, 1869-1871); S. Soloviev,"Emperor Alexander the First. Politics - Diplomacy" (St. Petersburg, 1877); A. Hadler,“Emperor Alexander the First and the idea of ​​the Holy Alliance” (Riga, IV volume, 1885-1868); H. Putyata,"Review of the life and reign of Emperor Alexander I" (in "Historical collection." 1872, No. 1, pp. 426-494); Schilder,"Russia in its relations to Europe during the reign of Emperor Alexander I, 1806-1815." (in "Russian Star.", 1888); N. Varadinov,"Historical Ministry of Internal Affairs" (parts I-III, St. Petersburg, 1862); A. Semenov,“Study of historical information about Russian trade” (St. Petersburg, 1859, part II, pp. 113-226); M. Semevsky,“The Peasant Question” (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1888); I. Dityatin,"The structure and management of cities in Russia" (2 volumes, 1875-1877); A. Pypin,"The Social Movement under Alexander I" (St. Petersburg, 1871).

(Brockhaus)

(1777-1825) - ascended the throne in 1801, son of Paul I, grandson of Catherine II. Grandmother's favorite, A. was brought up “in the spirit of the 18th century,” as this spirit was understood by the nobility of that time. In terms of physical education, they tried to stay “close to nature,” which gave A. a temper that was very useful for his future camping life. As for education, it was entrusted to Rousseau’s fellow countryman, the Swiss Laharpe, a “republican”, so tactful, however, that he did not have any clashes with the court nobility of Catherine II, that is, with the serf-owning landowners. From La Harpe, A. acquired the habit of “republican” phrases, which again helped a lot when he needed to show off his liberalism and win over public opinion. As a matter of fact, A. has never been a republican, or even a liberal. Flogging and shooting seemed to him natural means of control, and in this respect he was superior to many of his generals [an example is the famous phrase: “There will be military settlements, even if the road from St. Petersburg to Chudov would have to be paved with corpses,” said almost simultaneously with another statement: "Whatever they say about me, I lived and will die a Republican."

Catherine had in mind to bequeath the throne directly to A., bypassing Paul, but she died before she had time to formalize her wish. When Paul ascended the throne in 1796, A. found himself in the position of an unsuccessful contender in relation to his father. This should immediately create unbearable relationships in the family. Pavel suspected his son all the time, rushed around with a plan to put him in the fortress, in a word, at every step the story of Peter and Alexei Petrovich could be repeated. But Paul was incomparably smaller than Peter, and A. was much larger, smarter and more cunning than his ill-fated son. Alexei Petrovich was only suspected of conspiracy, but A. actually organized conspiracies against his father: Pavel fell victim to the second of them (March 11/23, 1801). A. did not personally take part in the murder, but his name was mentioned to the conspirators at the decisive moment, and his adjutant and closest friend Volkonsky was among the killers. Parricide was the only way out in the current situation, but the tragedy of March 11 still had a strong impact on A.’s psyche, partially preparing the way for the mysticism of his last days.

A.'s policy was determined, however, not by his moods, but by the objective conditions of his accession to the throne. Paul persecuted and persecuted the large nobility, the court servants of Catherine, whom he hated. In the early years, A. relied on people from this circle, although he despised them in his soul (“these insignificant people,” the French envoy was once told about them). A., however, did not give the aristocratic constitution that the “nobility” wanted, cleverly playing on the contradictions within the “nobility” itself. He followed her lead in his foreign policy, concluding an alliance against Napoleonic France with England, the main consumer of the products of the noble estates and the main supplier of luxury goods for large landowners. When the alliance led to the double defeat of Russia, in 1805 and 1807, A. was forced to make peace, thereby breaking with the “nobility.” A situation was developing that was reminiscent of the last years of his father’s life. In St. Petersburg, “they talked about the murder of the emperor, as they talk about rain or good weather” (report of the French ambassador Caulaincourt to Napoleon). A. tried to hold on for several years, relying on that layer that was later called “commoners” and on the industrial bourgeoisie that was rising, thanks precisely to the break with England. A former seminarian connected with bourgeois circles, the son of a rural priest, Speransky became Secretary of State and, in fact, first minister. He composed a draft bourgeois constitution, reminiscent of the “fundamental laws” of 1906. But the severance of relations with England amounted, in fact, to the cessation of all foreign trade and put the main economic force of the era - merchant capital - against Australia; the newborn industrial bourgeoisie was still too weak to serve as a support. By the spring of 1812, A. surrendered, Speransky was exiled, and the “nobility”, in the person of those created - formally according to Speransky’s project, but in fact from social elements hostile to the latter - state council, returned to power again.

The natural consequence was a new alliance with England and a new break with France - the so-called. " Patriotic War"(1812-14). After the first failures new war A. almost “retired into private life.” He lived in St. Petersburg, in the Kamennoostrovsky Palace, almost never appearing anywhere. “You are not in any danger,” his sister (and at the same time one of his favorites) Ekaterina Pavlovna wrote to him, “but you can imagine the situation of a country whose head is despised.” The unforeseen catastrophe of Napoleon’s “grand army,” which lost 90% of its strength in Russia from hunger and frost, and the subsequent uprising of central Europe against Napoleon, unexpectedly radically changed A.’s personal situation. From a loser despised even by his loved ones, he turned into a victorious the leader of the entire anti-Napoleonic coalition, into the “king of kings.” On March 31, 1814, at the head of the allied armies, A. solemnly entered Paris - there was no person in Europe more influential than him. This could have made a stronger head spin; A., being neither a fool nor a coward, like some of the last Romanovs, was still a man of average intelligence and character. He now first of all strives to maintain his position of power in the West. Europe, not realizing that he got it by chance and that he played the role of a tool in the hands of the British. To this end, he seizes Poland, seeks to make it a springboard for a new campaign of Russian armies at any moment to the west; in order to ensure the reliability of this bridgehead, he courtes in every possible way the Polish bourgeoisie and the Polish landowners, gives Poland a constitution, which he violates every day, turning both the Poles against himself with his insincerity, and the Russian landowners in whom. The "patriotic" war greatly raised nationalist sentiments - with its clear preference for Poland. Feeling his ever-increasing alienation from Russian “society”, in which non-noble elements then played an insignificant role, A. tries to rely on people “personally devoted”, which they turn out to be, ch. arr., "Germans", i.e., Baltic and partly Prussian nobles, and among the Russians - the rude soldier Arakcheev, by origin almost the same plebeian as Speransky, but without any constitutional projects. The crowning of the building was to be the creation of a uniform oprichnina, a special military caste, represented by the so-called. military settlements. All this terribly teased both the class and national pride of the Russian landowners, creating a favorable atmosphere for a conspiracy against A. himself - a conspiracy much deeper and more serious politically than the one that ended his father on March 11/23, 1801 . The plan for A.’s murder was already completely worked out, and the moment of the murder was set for maneuvers in the summer of 1826, but on November 19 (Dec. 1) of the previous 1825, A. unexpectedly died in Taganrog from a malignant fever, which he contracted in the Crimea, where he traveled while preparing for war with Turkey and the capture of Constantinople; By realizing this dream of all the Romanovs, starting with Catherine, A. hoped to brilliantly end his reign. To carry out this campaign without capturing Constantinople, however, it had to be younger brother and the heir, Nikolai Pavlovich, who also had to pursue a more “national” policy, abandoning too broad Western plans. From his nominal wife, Elizaveta Alekseevna, A. did not have children - but he had countless of them from his regular and occasional favorites. According to his friend Volkonsky mentioned above (not to be confused with the Decembrist), A. had connections with women in every city where he stopped. As we saw above, he did not leave the women of his own family alone, having a very close relationship with one of his own sisters. In this respect, he was a true grandson of his grandmother, who counted dozens of favorites. But Catherine retained a clear mind until the end of her life, while A. in recent years showed all the signs of religious insanity. It seemed to him that “the Lord God” was interfering in every little detail of his life; even, for example, a successful review of the troops brought him into religious emotion. On this basis, he became close to the then famous religious charlatan, Mrs. Krudener(cm.); In connection with these same sentiments is the form that he gave to his domination over Europe - the formation of the so-called. Holy Alliance.

Lit.: Non-Marxist lit.: Bogdanovich, M. N., History of the reign of Alexander I and Russia in his time, 6 vols., St. Petersburg, 1869-71; Schilder, N.K., Alexander I, 4 vols., St. Petersburg, 2nd ed., 1904; him, Alexander I (in the Russian Biographical Dictionary, vol. 1); b. led Prince Nikolai Mikhailovich, Emperor Alexander I, ed. 2, St. Petersburg; his, Correspondence of Alexander I with his sister Ekaterina Pavlovna, St. Petersburg, 1910; by him, Count P. A. Stroganov, 3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1903; his, Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna, 3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1908; Schiemann, Geschichte Russlands unter Kaiser Nicolaus I, B. I. Kaiser Alexander I und die Ergebnisse seiner Lebensarbeit, Berlin. 1901 (this entire first volume is dedicated to the era of A. I); Schiller, Histoire intime de la Russie sous les empereurs Alexandre et Nicolas, 2 v., Paris; Mémoires du prince Adam Czartorysky et sa correspondance avec l "empereur Alexandre I, 2 t., P., 1887 (there is a Russian translation, M., 1912 and 1913). Marxist lit.: Pokrovsky, M. N., Russian history from ancient times, vol. III (several editions); his, Alexander I (History of Russia in the 19th century, ed. Granat, vol. 1, pp. 31-66).

M. Pokrovsky. Dictionary of personal names

Emperor Alexander I (1801-1825). On the night of March 12, 1801 happened in Russia last palace coup. Conspirators killed Emperor Paul I . His eldest son ascended the Russian throne Alexander.

The young 23-year-old emperor was a complex and contradictory person. In early childhood Catherine II she tore the crown prince away from his father’s family and personally oversaw his education and upbringing. Alexander had to maneuver between his father and grandmother, dissemble and hide his true feelings. Some celebrated it hypocrisy and insincerity. “The ruler is weak and crafty, a bald dandy, an enemy of labor, accidentally warmed by glory...”(A.S. Pushkin). Others noted friendliness, ability to charm, attract people to you.

Alexander 1 received a brilliant education for that time. The mentor of the future emperor was a Swiss politician F. Laharpe, Republican, committed to ideas French Enlightenment which he tried to instill in his student. However, his political consciousness changed significantly with age. A liberal in the first years of his reign, he gradually turned into a conservative and even reactionary politician. His deep religiosity, reaching the point of mysticism, was reflected in specific domestic and foreign policy actions in 1815-1825.

The era of liberalism.

The first internal political measures of Alexander 1 were associated with the correction of the most odious orders Paul I. He spoke out against the despotism and tyranny of his father, and promised to pursue policies “according to the laws and heart” of his grandmother Catherine II. This combined both his liberal views and the desire to gain popularity in society. Free entry and exit abroad, the import of foreign books were again allowed, restrictions on trade with England and regulations in everyday life, clothing, that irritated people were abolished. public behavior etc.

In 1801 it was formed Essential advice - an advisory body consisting mostly of figures from Catherine’s era. However, the main center became the so-called Secret committee . It included the tsar's young friends - Count P. A. Stroganov, Polish Prince A. E. Chartorysky, Count V. P. Kochubey and Count N. N. Novosiltsev. The projects they developed did not lead to fundamental reforms.

Public administration reforms.

In 1802 collegium, created under Peter I as the main executive authorities, were replaced ministries. As a result, the central executive power was significantly strengthened. The system of sectoral management was established, collegiality was replaced by unity of command, direct responsibility of ministers to the emperor was introduced, autocracy .

Was established eight the first ministries: military, naval forces, foreign affairs, justice, internal affairs, finance, commerce and public education. In 1810-1811 their number increased, established Committee of Ministers.

In 1802 it was reformed Senate, which became the highest administrative judicial and supervisory body in the system government controlled. He received the right to make “representations” to the emperor regarding outdated laws, as well as to participate in the discussion of new ones.

In charge of the spiritual affairs of the Orthodox Church Holy Synod, whose members were appointed by the emperor. At the head of the Synod - chief prosecutor, a person, as a rule, very close to the king. Under Alexander I, the position of chief prosecutor in 1803-1824. performed by Prince A. N. Golitsyn.

The most active supporter of the idea of ​​reforming the public administration system was the State Secretary of the Permanent Council M. M. Speransky(1772-1839). He developed a project for public administration reform " Introduction to the Code of State Laws" It was the principle of separation of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of power through the convening of a representative State Duma and the introduction of elected courts. At the same time, he considered it necessary to create a State Council, which would become link between the emperor and central and local authorities. The establishment of the State Council in 1810 was the only result of the implementation of the plans of M. M. Speransky.

Famous writer and historian became conservative ideologist N. M. Karamzin, who insisted on preserving the old order, autocracy and serfdom.

In subsequent years, reformist sentiments Alexandra 1 reflected in the introduction of the Constitution in the Kingdom of Poland (1815), the preservation of the Sejm and the constitutional structure in Finland, annexed to Russia in 1809, as well as in the creation on behalf of the Tsar “ Charter of the Russian Empire"(1819-1820), which provided for the separation of branches of government, the introduction of representative bodies, the equality of all citizens before the law and the federal principle of government. However, all these proposals remained on paper.

Russian Emperor Alexander I Pavlovich was born on December 25 (12 according to the old style) December 1777. He was the first-born son of Emperor Paul I (1754-1801) and Empress Maria Feodorovna (1759-1828).

Biography of Empress Catherine II the GreatThe reign of Catherine II lasted more than three and a half decades, from 1762 to 1796. It was filled with many events in internal and external affairs, the implementation of plans that continued what was done under Peter the Great.

Immediately after his birth, Alexander was taken from his parents by his grandmother, Empress Catherine II, who intended to raise the baby as an ideal sovereign. On the recommendation of the philosopher Denis Diderot, the Swiss Frederic Laharpe, a republican by conviction, was invited to become a teacher.

Grand Duke Alexander grew up with faith in the ideals of the Enlightenment, sympathized with the Great French Revolution and was critical of the system of Russian autocracy.

Alexander's critical attitude towards the policies of Paul I contributed to his involvement in the conspiracy against his father, but on the conditions that the conspirators would save the life of the king and would only seek his abdication. The violent death of Paul on March 23 (11 old style) March 1801 seriously affected Alexander - he felt a sense of guilt for the death of his father until the end of his days.

In the first days after ascending the throne in March 1801, Alexander I created the Permanent Council - a legislative advisory body under the sovereign, which had the right to protest the actions and decrees of the tsar. But due to inconsistencies among members, none of his projects were made public.

Alexander I carried out a number of reforms: merchants, townspeople and state-owned (related to the state) villagers were given the right to buy uninhabited lands (1801), ministries and a cabinet of ministers were established (1802), a decree was issued on free cultivators (1803), which created the category personally free peasants.

In 1822, Alexander founded Masonic lodges and other secret societies.

Emperor Alexander I died on December 2 (November 19, old style) 1825 from typhoid fever in Taganrog, where he accompanied his wife, Empress Elizabeth Alekseevna, for treatment.

The emperor often told his loved ones about his intention to abdicate the throne and “remove the world,” which gave rise to the legend about the elder Fyodor Kuzmich, according to which Alexander’s double died and was buried in Taganrog, while the king lived as an old hermit in Siberia and died in 1864

Alexander I was married to the German princess Louise-Maria-August of Baden-Baden (1779-1826), who adopted the name Elizabeth Alekseevna upon converting to Orthodoxy. From this marriage two daughters were born who died in infancy.

The material was prepared based on information from open sources