The culture of Ancient Greece is famous for its immortal architectural and sculptural masterpieces. The majestic antique style of construction is rightfully considered one of best examples ancient art. The most famous example of this style is the Parthenon.

The Great Temple: the meaning of the word “Parthenon”

Construction of the Parthenon began in Athens in 447 BC, and construction was completed in 432 BC. The temple was named after the goddess Athena Parthenos, who was its patron. The word “Parthenos” itself translated from ancient Greek means “virgin”.
The temple was designed by Calicrates and Ictinus during the reign of Pericles, and it was built on the foundation of the old one. The ruler of Athens planned to make the Parthenon a symbol of the greatness of his state. Mostly marble was used for its construction, only the roof was wooden. To date, scientists have found that all parts of the complex of temple buildings with the Acropolis have a “golden proportion” relationship.

Where is the Parthenon?

The famous Athenian temple dedicated to Athena the Virgin is located in the city center, on the highest point of the Acropolis. Therefore, you can watch from almost everywhere. At night, it looks especially attractive because it is specially illuminated.
The Parthenon has experienced many events during its lifetime. It was plundered by conquerors, survived a strong fire, after which it was restored. In 426 AD. the temple was turned into a Christian church, and after the conquest

Predecessors of the Parthenon

Main articles: Hecatompedon (temple), Opisthodomos (temple)

The interior (59 m long and 21.7 m wide) has two more steps (total height 0.7 m) and is amphiprostyle. The facades have porticoes with columns that are just below the columns of the peristyle. The eastern portico was a pronaos, the western one a posticum.

Plan of the Parthenon sculptural decoration (north right). Antiquity period.

Material and technology

The temple was built entirely from Pentelic marble, mined nearby. During mining he has White color, but under the influence of the sun's rays it turns yellow. The northern side of the building is exposed to less radiation - and therefore the stone there has a grayish-ashy tint, while the southern blocks have a golden-yellowish color. The tiles and stylobate are also made of this marble. The columns are made of drums fastened together wooden plugs and kingpins.

Metopes

Main article: Doric frieze of the Parthenon

The metopes were part of the triglyph-metope frieze, traditional for the Doric order, which encircled the outer colonnade of the temple. There were a total of 92 metopes on the Parthenon, containing various high reliefs. They were connected thematically along the sides of the building. In the east the battle of the centaurs with the Lapiths was depicted, in the south - the Amazonomachy, in the west - probably scenes from the Trojan War, in the north - the Gigantomachy.

64 metopes survive: 42 in Athens and 15 in the British Museum. Most of them are on the eastern side.

Bas-relief frieze

East side. Plates 36-37. Seated gods.

Main article: Ionic frieze of the Parthenon

The outer side of the cella and opisthodome was surrounded at the top (at a height of 11 m from the floor) by another frieze, Ionic. It was 160 m long and 1 m high and contained about 350 foot and 150 mounted figures. On the bas-relief, which is one of the most famous works This genre in ancient art that has come down to us depicts a procession on the last day of Panathenaia. On the north and south sides horsemen and chariots, just citizens, are depicted. On the south side there are also musicians, people with various gifts and sacrificial animals. The western part of the frieze contains many young men with horses, mounting or already mounted. In the east (above the entrance to the temple) the end of the procession is represented: the priest, surrounded by gods, accepts the peplos woven for the goddess by the Athenians. standing nearby important people cities.

96 frieze plates have survived. 56 of them are in the British Museum, 40 (mostly the western part of the frieze) are in Athens.

Pediments

Main article: Pediments of the Parthenon

Pediment fragment.

Giant sculptural groups were placed in the tympanums of the pediments (0.9 m deep) above the western and eastern entrances. They have survived very poorly to this day. The central figures almost didn't make it. In the center of the eastern pediment in the Middle Ages, a window was barbarically cut through, which completely destroyed the composition located there. Ancient authors usually avoid this part of the temple. Pausanias, the main source on such matters, mentions them only in passing, paying much more attention to the statue of Athena. Sketches by J. Kerry dating back to 1674 have been preserved, which provide quite a lot of information about the western pediment. The Eastern one was already in a deplorable state at that time. Therefore, the reconstruction of the gables is mostly just guesswork.

The eastern group depicted the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. Only the side parts of the composition have been preserved. A chariot driven, presumably, by Helios, enters from the south side. Dionysus sits in front of him, then Demeter and Kore. Behind them stands another goddess, perhaps Artemis. From the north, three seated female figures have reached us - the so-called “three veils” - which are sometimes considered as Hestia, Dione and Aphrodite. In the very corner there is another figure, apparently driving a chariot, since in front of it is the head of a horse. This is probably Nyux or Selena. Regarding the center of the pediment (or rather, most of it), we can only say that there, definitely, due to the theme of the composition, there were the figures of Zeus, Hephaestus and Athena. Most likely, the rest of the Olympians and, perhaps, some other gods were there. A torso survives, attributed in most cases to Poseidon.

The western pediment represents the dispute between Athena and Poseidon for the possession of Attica. They stood in the center and were located diagonally to each other. On both sides of them there were chariots, probably in the north - Nike with Hermes, in the south - Iris with Amphitryon. Around were figures of legendary characters of Athenian history, but their exact attribution is almost impossible.

28 statues have reached us: 19 in the British Museum and 11 in Athens.

Athena Parthenos statue

The statue of Athena Parthenos, standing in the center of the temple and being its sacred center, was made by Phidias himself. It was upright and about 11 m high, made in the chrysoelephantine technique (that is, from gold and ivory on a wooden base). The sculpture has not survived and is known from various copies and numerous images on coins. In one hand the goddess holds Nike, and with the other she leans on the shield. The shield depicts Amazonomachy. There is a legend that Phidias depicted himself (in the image of Daedalus) and Pericles (in the image of Theseus) on it, for which (as well as on charges of stealing gold for the statue) he went to prison. The peculiarity of the relief on the shield is that the second and third plans are shown not from behind, but one above the other. In addition, its subject matter allows us to say that this is already a historical relief. Another relief was on Athena's sandals. A centauromachy was depicted there.

The birth of Pandora, the first woman, was carved on the pedestal of the statue.

Other finishing details

None of the ancient sources recalls the fire in the Parthenon, but archaeological excavations have proven that it occurred in the middle of the 3rd century. BC BC, most likely during the invasion of the barbarian tribe of the Heruli, who sacked Athens in 267 BC. e. As a result of the fire, the roof of the Parthenon was destroyed, as well as almost all the internal fittings and ceilings. The marble is cracked. In the eastern extension, the colonnade, both main doors of the temple and the second frieze collapsed. If dedicatory inscriptions were kept in the temple, they are irretrievably lost. Reconstruction after the fire did not aim to completely restore the appearance of the temple. The terracotta roof was installed only over the internal premises, and the external colonnade was unprotected. Two rows of columns in the eastern hall were replaced with similar ones. Based on the architectural style of the restored elements, it was possible to establish that the blocks were more early period belonged to various buildings of the Acropolis of Athens. In particular, 6 blocks of the western doors formed the basis of a massive sculptural group depicting a chariot drawn by horses (scratches are still visible on these blocks in the places where the horses' hooves and chariot wheels were attached), as well as a group of bronze statues of warriors, which Pausanias described. The other three blocks of the western doors are marble tablets with financial statements, which establish the main stages of the construction of the Parthenon.

Christian temple

Story

The Parthenon remained a temple to the goddess Athena for a thousand years. It is not known exactly when it became a Christian church. In the 4th century, Athens fell into disrepair and became a provincial city of the Roman Empire. In the 5th century, the temple was robbed by one of the emperors, and all its treasures were transported to Constantinople. There is information that under Patriarch Paul III of Constantinople the Parthenon was rebuilt into the Church of St. Sophia.

In the early 13th century, the statue of Athena Promachos was damaged and destroyed during the Fourth Crusade. The Athena Parthenos statue probably disappeared as early as the 3rd century BC. e. during a fire or earlier. Roman and Byzantine emperors repeatedly issued decrees banning pagan cults, but the pagan tradition in Hellas was too strong. At the present stage, it is generally accepted that the Parthenon became a Christian temple around the 6th century AD.

Probably, under the predecessor of Choniates, the building of the Cathedral of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Athens suffered more significant changes. The apse in the eastern part was destroyed and rebuilt. The new apse was closely adjacent to the ancient columns, so the central slab of the frieze was dismantled. This slab depicting the "peplos scene", later used to build fortifications on the Acropolis, was found by agents of Lord Elgin and is now on display in the British Museum. Under Michael Choniates himself, the interior decoration of the temple was restored, including the paintings Judgment Day on the wall of the portico where the entrance was located, there are paintings depicting the Passion of Christ in the narthex, a number of paintings that depict saints and previous Athenian metropolitans. All the Parthenon paintings from the Christian era were covered with a thick layer of whitewash in the 1880s, but in the early 19th century the Marquis of Bute commissioned watercolors from them. It was from these watercolors that researchers established the plot motifs of the paintings and the approximate time of creation - the end of the 12th century. Around the same time, the apse ceiling was decorated with mosaics, which collapsed within a few decades. Glass fragments of it are also on display in the British Museum.

On February 24 and 25, 1395, the Italian traveler Nicolo de Martoni visited Athens, who left in his Pilgrim's Book (now in the National Library of France, Paris) the first systematic description of the Parthenon since Pausanias. Martoni presents the Parthenon as a landmark of exclusively Christian history, but considers the main wealth not the numerous relics and the revered icon of the Virgin Mary, painted by the Evangelist Luke and decorated with pearls and precious stones, but a copy of the Gospel written in Greek on thin gilded parchment with Saint Helen Equal to the Apostles, mother of Constantine the Great, the first Byzantine emperor to officially convert to Christianity. Martoni also talks about the cross scratched on one of the columns of the Parthenon by Saint Dionysius the Areopagite.

Martoni's journey coincided with the beginning of the reign of the Acciaioli family, whose representatives proved themselves to be generous benefactors. Nerio I Acciaioli ordered the doors of the cathedral to be inlaid with silver; in addition, he bequeathed the entire city to the cathedral, giving Athens into the possession of the Parthenon. The most significant addition to the cathedral from the Latinocracy period is the tower near the right side of the portico, built after the city was captured by the Crusaders. For its construction, they used blocks taken from the back of the tomb of a Roman nobleman on the hill of Philopappou. The tower was supposed to serve as the bell tower of the cathedral, in addition, it was equipped spiral staircases which rose all the way to the roof. Since the tower blocked the small doors to the narthex, the central western entrance of the Parthenon of the ancient era began to be used again.

During the reign of Acciaioli in Athens, the first and earliest drawing of the Parthenon that has survived to this day was created. It was executed by Ciriaco di Pizzicoli, an Italian merchant, papal legate, traveler and lover of the classics, better known as Cyriacus of Ancona. He visited Athens in 1444 and stayed in the luxurious palace into which the Propylaea had been converted to pay his respects to Acciaioli. Kiriak left detailed notes and whole line drawings, but they were destroyed by a fire in 1514 in the library of the city of Pesaro. One of the images of the Parthenon has survived. It depicts a temple with 8 Doric columns, the location of the metopes - epistilia - is accurately indicated, and the frieze with the missing central metope - listae parietum - is correctly depicted. The building is very elongated, and the sculptures on the pediment depict a scene that is not similar to the dispute between Athena and Poseidon. This is a 15th century lady with a pair of rearing horses, surrounded by Renaissance angels. The description of the Parthenon itself is quite accurate: the number of columns is 58, and on the metopes, which are better preserved, as Cyriacus correctly suggests, a scene of the struggle of the centaurs with the Lapita is depicted. Cyriacus of Ancona also owns the very first description of the sculptural frieze of the Parthenon, which, as he believed, depicts the Athenian victories of the era of Pericles.

Mosque

Story

Reconstructions and decoration

The most detailed description of the Parthenon from the Ottoman period is by Evliya Çelebi, a Turkish diplomat and traveler. He visited Athens several times throughout the 1630s and 1640s. Evliya Celebi noted that the conversion of the Christian Parthenon into a mosque did not greatly affect his internal view. The main feature of the temple remained the canopy over the altar. He also described that the four columns of red marble that supported the canopy were polished to a shine. The floor of the Parthenon is made of polished marble slabs up to 3 m each. Each of the blocks that decorated the walls was masterfully combined with the other in such a way that the border between them is invisible to the eye. Celebi noted that the panels on the eastern wall of the temple are so thin that they are able to transmit sunlight. This feature was also mentioned by Spohn and J. Wehler, who suggested that in fact this stone is phengite, a transparent marble, which, according to Pliny, was the favorite stone of the Emperor Nero. Evliya recalls that the silver inlay of the main doors of the Christian temple was removed, and the ancient sculptures and paintings were covered with whitewash, although the layer of whitewash was thin and the subject of the painting could be seen. Next, Evliya Celebi gives a list of characters, listing the heroes of pagan, Christian and Muslim religions: demons, Satan, wild animals, devils, sorceresses, angels, dragons, antichrists, cyclops, monsters, crocodiles, elephants, rhinoceroses, as well as Cherub, archangels Gabriel, Seraphim, Azrael, Michael, the ninth heaven, on which the throne of the Lord is located, the scales weighing sins and virtues.

Evliya does not describe the mosaics made of gold pieces and shards of multi-colored glass, which would later be found during excavations on the Acropolis of Athens. However, the mosaic is mentioned in passing by J. Spon and J. Wehler, describing in more detail the images of the Virgin Mary in the apse behind the altar, which survived from the previous Christian era. They also talk about a legend according to which the Turk who shot at the fresco of Mary lost his hand, so the Ottomans decided not to harm the temple anymore.

Although the Turks had no desire to protect the Parthenon from destruction, they also had no intention of completely distorting or destroying the temple. Since it is impossible to accurately determine the time of overwriting the Parthenon metopes, the Turks could continue this process. However, overall they carried out less destruction of the building than the Christians did a thousand years before Ottoman rule, who turned the magnificent ancient temple into a Christian cathedral. As long as the Parthenon served as a mosque, Muslim worship took place surrounded by Christian paintings and images of Christian saints. The Parthenon was not subsequently rebuilt and its present appearance has remained unchanged since the 17th century.

Destruction

The peace between the Turks and the Venetians did not last long. A new Turkish-Venetian war began. In September 1687, the Parthenon suffered its most terrible blow: the Venetians, under the leadership of Doge Francesco Morosini, captured the Acropolis fortified by the Turks. On September 28, the Swedish general Koenigsmark, who was at the head of the Venetian army, gave the order to fire at the Acropolis from cannons on Philopappou Hill. When the cannons fired at the Parthenon, which served the Ottomans as a gunpowder storehouse, it exploded, and part of the temple instantly turned into ruins. In previous decades, Turkish gunpowder magazines were repeatedly blown up. In 1645, a warehouse built in the Propylaea of ​​the Acropolis was struck by lightning, killing Disdar and his family. In 1687, when Athens was attacked by the Venetians together with the army of the allied Holy League, the Turks decided to locate their ammunition, as well as hide children and women, in the Parthenon. They could rely on the thickness of the walls and ceilings or hope that the Christian enemy would not fire at the building, which had served as a Christian temple for several centuries.

Judging by the traces of shelling on the western pediment alone, about 700 cannonballs hit the Parthenon. At least 300 people died, their remains were found during excavations in the 19th century. The central part of the temple was destroyed, including 28 columns, a fragment of a sculptural frieze, and interior spaces that once served as a Christian church and mosque; the roof in the northern part has collapsed. The western pediment turned out to be almost undamaged, and Francesco Morosini wanted to take its central sculptures to Venice. However, the scaffolding used by the Venetians collapsed during the work, and the sculptures collapsed, falling to the ground. Several fragments of fragments were nevertheless taken to Italy, the rest remained on the Acropolis. From this time on, the history of the Parthenon becomes the history of ruins. The destruction of the Parthenon was witnessed by Anna Ocherjelm, lady-in-waiting of the Countess of Königsmarck. She described the temple and the moment of the explosion. Shortly after the final surrender of the Turks, while walking along the Acropolis, among the ruins of a mosque, she found an Arabic manuscript that was transferred by Anna Ocherjelm's brother to the library of the Swedish city of Uppsala. Therefore, after its two-thousand-year history, the Parthenon could no longer be used as a temple, since it was destroyed much more than one can imagine from its current appearance - the result of many years of reconstruction. John Pentland Magaffey, who visited the Parthenon several decades before restoration work, noted:

From a political point of view, the destruction of the Parthenon had minimal consequences. A few months after the victory, the Venetians gave up power over Athens: they did not have enough forces to further defend the city, and the plague epidemic made Athens completely unattractive to invaders. The Turks again established a garrison on the Acropolis, albeit on a smaller scale, among the ruins of the Parthenon, and erected a new small mosque. It can be seen in the first known photograph of the temple, created in 1839.

From destruction to reconstruction

Early explorers of the Parthenon included the British archaeologist James Stewart and architect Nicholas Revett. Stuart first published drawings, descriptions and drawings with measurements of the Parthenon for the Society of Dilettantes in 1789. In addition, it is known that James Stewart collected a considerable collection of ancient antiquities from the Acropolis of Athens and the Parthenon. The cargo was sent by sea to Smyrna, after which the trace of the collection is lost. However, one of the fragments of the Parthenon frieze, removed by Stuart, was found in 1902 buried in the garden of the Colne Park estate in Essex, which was inherited by the son of Thomas Astle, an antiquarian and trustee of the British Museum.

It still remains unclear and legal side affairs. The actions of Lord Elgin and his agents were regulated by the Sultan's firman. Whether they contradicted him is impossible to establish, since the original document has not been found, only its translation into Italian, made for Elgin at the Ottoman court, is known. IN Italian version it is allowed to measure and sketch sculptures using ladders and scaffolding; create plaster casts, dig up fragments buried under the soil during the explosion. The translation does not say anything about permission or prohibition to remove sculptures from the facade or pick up those that have fallen. It is known for certain that already among Elgin’s contemporaries, the majority criticized at least the use of chisels, saws, ropes and blocks for removing sculptures, since in this way the surviving parts of the building were destroyed. The Irish traveler, author of several works on ancient architecture, Edward Dodwell wrote:

I felt an unspeakable humiliation as I witnessed the Parthenon being deprived of its best sculptures. I saw several metopes being removed from the south-eastern part of the building. To raise the metopes, the wonderful cornice that protected them had to be thrown to the ground. The same fate befell the southeast corner of the pediment. Original text(English) I had the inexpressible mortification of being present, when the Parthenon was despoiled of its finest sculptures. I saw several metopes at the south east extremity of the temple taken down. They were fixed in between the triglyphs as in a groove; and in order to lift them up, it was necessary to throw to the ground the magnificent cornice by which they were covered. The south east angle of the pediment shared the same fate.

Independent Greece

Duveen Hall at the British Museum, which displays the Elgin Marbles

It is extremely limited to see in the Athenian Acropolis only a place where, like in a museum, you can only see the great creations of the era of Pericles... At least, people who call themselves scientists should not be allowed to cause senseless destruction on their own initiative. Original text(English) It is but a narrow view of the Akropolis of Athens to look on it simply as the place where the great works of the afe of Perikles may be seen as models in a museum… At all events, let not men callins themselves distinguished lend themselves tj such deeds of wanton destruction.

However, official archaeological policy remained unchanged until the 1950s, when a proposal to remove a staircase from a medieval tower at the western end of the Parthenon was abruptly rejected. At the same time, a program to restore the appearance of the temple was unfolding. Back in the 1840s, four columns of the northern facade and one column of the southern facade were partially restored. 150 blocks were returned to their place in the walls of the interior of the temple, the rest of the space was filled with modern red brick. The work was most intensified by the 1894 earthquake, which largely destroyed the temple. The first cycle of work was completed in 1902, its scale was quite modest, and it was carried out under the auspices of a committee of international consultants. Until the 1920s and for a long time after, chief engineer Nikolaos Balanos worked without external control. It was he who began the restoration program, designed for 10 years. It was planned to completely restore interior walls, strengthen the gables and install plaster copies of the sculptures removed by Lord Elgin. In the end, the most significant change was the reproduction of the long sections of colonnades that connected the east and west facades.

Diagram showing blocks of individual columns from the ancient era, Manolis Korres

Thanks to the Balanos program, the destroyed Parthenon acquired its modern appearance. However, since the 1950s, after his death, his achievements have been repeatedly criticized. First, no attempt was made to return the blocks to their original location. Secondly, and most importantly, Balanos used iron rods and clamps to connect the antique marble blocks. Over time, they rusted and warped, causing the blocks to crack. In the late 1960s, in addition to the problem of Balanos fastenings, the effects of environment: Air pollution and acid rain have damaged the Parthenon sculptures and reliefs. In 1970, a UNESCO report proposed a variety of ways to save the Parthenon, including enclosing the hill under a glass cover. Eventually, in 1975, a committee was established to oversee the preservation of the entire complex of the Acropolis of Athens, and in 1986 work began to dismantle the iron fastenings used by Balanos and replace them with titanium ones. In the period -2012, the Greek authorities plan to restore the western facade of the Parthenon. Some elements of the frieze will be replaced with copies, the originals will be transported to the exhibition of the New Acropolis Museum. The chief engineer of the work, Manolis Korres, considers the first priority to be to patch up the holes left by bullets fired at the Parthenon in 1821 during the Greek Revolution. Restorers must also assess the damage done to the Parthenon strong earthquakes and 1999. As a result of the consultations, it was decided that by the time the restoration work was completed, the remains of the apse from the Christian era could be seen inside the temple, as well as the pedestal of the statue of the goddess Athena Parthenos; Restorers will pay no less attention to the traces of Venetian cannonballs on the walls and medieval inscriptions on the columns.

In world culture

The Parthenon is one of the symbols not only of ancient culture, but also of beauty in general.

Modern copies

Nashville Parthenon

An icon of Western civilization, it is one of the most famous buildings in the world. The temple was built in the fifth century BC overlooking the city of Athens from its majestic position on top of the sacred Acropolis mountain.The Parthenon was created in honor of the goddess Athena Parthenos (Virgin Athena), patroness of the city of Athens. The temple was originally known as the Great Temple (Megas Naos), but later became known as the Parthenon.

Today's Parthenon was not the first temple built here in antiquity. There are traces of two earlier and slightly smaller temples: the first of stone, and the second of marble.

Soon after the Persians destroyed all the buildings on the Acropolis in 480 BC, Pericles commissioned the construction of a new one big temple and the project was led by the architect and sculptor Phidias. The design of the Parthenon is attributed to Callicrates and Ictinus. Construction began in 447 BC and the temple was completed just nine years later. Phidias continued to work on the magnificent sculptures that decorated the temple until 432 BC.

After antiquity, the Parthenon was converted into a church and during the Turkish occupation of Athens it was used as an arsenal. It fell into ruin only in 1687, during the Turkish siege, the Venetians bombarded the Acropolis from Philopappos Hill. The ammunition stored in the Parthenon exploded, destroying the roof, interior and fourteen columns.

The Parthenon was built as a peripterus - a temple surrounded by columns - in the Doric order. The temple measures 30.86 by 69.51 meters and contained two cella (the internal main parts of the ancient temple). The eastern cella housed a large statue of the goddess Athena. Western - was exclusively for priests and contained the treasury of the union of Greek city-states.

The Parthenon was decorated with numerous sculptures and reliefs. There were fifty sculptures on the pediments alone. Most of the surviving sculptures are on display at the British Museum in London, while some are in the nearby Acropolis Museum. There were two friezes: the inner one in cella and the outer one, which consisted of triglyphs ( vertical stripes) and metopes (rectangular slabs) with relief sculptures. The interior frieze was designed by Phidias and depicted the Panathenaea, a festival in honor of Athena. Many metopes and interior parts of the frieze can also be seen in the British Museum.

To achieve visual perfection, the creators of the Parthenon used optical techniques, seemingly defying the laws of perspective. The speakers are slightly tilted inward and have a curved shape. As a result, the horizontal and vertical lines of the building appear perfectly straight to the naked eye.

Most people think that ancient temples always had simple marble colors. But buildings and statues in antiquity were often very colorful. The Parthenon in Athens was no exception: the sculptures on the friezes and pediment, as well as the roof, were brightly painted in blue, red and gold.

The main pride of the temple is the approximately twelve-meter statue of Athena Parthenos, created by Phidias. The statue was created from gold and Ivory on a wooden frame. Like all other Parthenon sculptures, the statue was painted in bright colors, mainly blue and red.

János Korom Dr. / flickr.com Parthenon in Athens (Panoramas / flickr.com) János Korom Dr. / flickr.com Chris Brown / flickr.com Parthenon, 1985 (Nathan Hughes Hamilton / flickr.com) The Parthenon rises on the Acropolis (Roger W / flickr.com) jjmusgrove / flickr.com Nicholas Doumani / flickr.com claire rowland / flickr. com Dennis Jarvis / flickr.com Parthenon at night (Arian Zwegers / flickr.com) psyberartist / flickr.com George Rex / flickr.com Reconstruction of the Parthenon (Emiliano Felicissimo / flickr.com) Comrade Foot / flickr.com In front of the Parthenon (Kristoffer Trolle / flickr.com)

The Parthenon Acropolis of Athens is the most outstanding religious building and the greatest monument of ancient Greek architecture. Built in the 5th century. BC, the temple amazed contemporaries with its size and grandeur, and continues to amaze and interest eyewitnesses of the modern era.

The Temple of the Virgin Athena in the city named after her was the most important cult object of the ancient Hellenes. For the residents of the city of Athens, it became consonant with the meaning of the words prosperity and well-being.

This reverent attitude is explained by the fact that it was dedicated to the goddess Athena, who was considered the patroness of the city and ancient Greece.

The word “Parthenon” in the language of the ancient Hellenes meant “most pure.” In other words, Athena became the forerunner of the “Most Pure Virgin Mary” in the Christian religion. The goddess was also an ancient Greek invariant of the common “mother goddess” archetype.

Legend of the Goddess Athena

Interestingly, Athena was given birth to by Zeus himself. According to ancient Greek myths, the supreme god of Olympus was foretold of death at the hands of his son.

In front of the Parthenon (Kristoffer Trolle / flickr.com)

Fearing the fulfillment of the words of the prophecy, the Thunderer swallowed his wife Metis, who was carrying a child under her heart.

However, the prediction did not come true - a daughter was born who came out of the head of Zeus (the heavenly ruler himself ordered his skull to be cut because he could not stand the torment).

Athena, like her brother Ares, became the patroness of wars. But unlike her divine relative, she stopped injustice and advocated the peaceful resolution of conflicts.

According to ancient Greek mythology, it was Athena who gave people crafts, in particular, she taught women weaving. In addition, the goddess contributed to the development of science and philosophy.

The Hellenes, who valued the intellectual factor of life above all else, decided to thank their patroness by erecting in her honor the most majestic temple in the history of mankind.

Where is the Parthenon?

The temple of the warrior maiden is located in the very center of the modern capital of Greece, on the Acropolis of Athens and is visible even from the most remote point of the city. The word "Acropolis" meant "Upper City". And this city performed defensive functions - the Athenians hid behind its walls, waiting out the siege.

Acropolis - abode of the gods

One glance at the Acropolis is enough to understand that the gods played a primary role in the lives of the inhabitants of ancient Greece - its entire territory is dissected by temples and sanctuaries dedicated to almost all the gods of Olympus.

The buildings of the Acropolis amaze with the genius of architectural thought and serve classic examples application of the golden section in construction.

The Greeks valued the correctness and proportionality of forms so much that they even applied the rules of the golden ratio in plastic art.

The Parthenon in Athens is not the first Acropolis structure erected in honor of Athena. Even 200 years before him, the goddess was glorified in the Hekatompedon temple. According to ancient historians, both sanctuaries actually existed in parallel until the first fell into decay.

Today, the monastery of Athena is a ruin, carved with traces of numerous destructions, but they still bear the stamp of their former greatness. The temple is business card Athens and all of Greece.

Every year, crowds of tourists interested in history flock to the foot of the Acropolis to touch history.

Acropolis of Athens (© A.Savin, Wikimedia Commons)

Who built the Parthenon?

The construction of the main temple of Athens, the Parthenon, dates back to 447 BC. e. The building was designed by the famous ancient architect Ikten. The construction was carried out by Callicrates, the court architect of the ruler Pericles, who took the initiative for the construction.

Parthenon, 1985 (Nathan Hughes Hamilton / flickr.com)

Under the leadership of the master, other objects of the Acropolis and more than a dozen civil objects of Athens were also erected. All projects of the master are built in best traditions architecture of Ancient Greece - using the principle of the golden ratio.

The temple of the goddess Athena was originally part of the extensive program of the Athenian ruler Pericles to improve the city.

An interesting fact is that it took 450 talents to build it. Considering that for 1 talent one could build 1 warship, we can say that Pericles left his empire without a navy, but gave the world one of the unique architectural monuments.

Construction of the temple lasted 9 years, and in 438 BC. e. he opened his doors. However, for another 6 years finishing work was carried out, led by Phidias, who went down in history thanks to interesting fact his creative biography.

Parthenon at night (Arian Zwegers / flickr.com)

The master is the creator of one of the Seven Wonders of the World - the sculpture of Zeus in Olympia. For the new temple, the sculptor created a statue of Athena Parthenos - an eleven-meter statue made of ivory and gold. This was a rich gift for the revered goddess.

The monument has not survived to this day, and we can judge its beauty only from surviving ancient sources.

The interior of the temple was filled with numerous sculptural compositions and statues of gods. Many of them are irretrievably lost. Some are kept in museums around the world. Statues from the Parthenon can be seen in the Hermitage.

Most of the surviving heritage is in the London Museum - these are statues and metopes bought back in the 19th century. from the Ottoman government. Currently, Greece is working to return the exhibits to their native lands.

Features of the architectural solution

The Parthenon Temple was in many ways an innovative building. His appearance and design discoveries at one time amazed contemporaries and still arouse research interest.

Architecture of the Parthenon (George Rex / flickr.com)

The temple was actually built entirely from Pendelic marble, which cost a lot of money, and the decoration was replete with gold.

Under the influence of sunlight, the southern facade acquired a golden hue over time. The northern side of the building, which was less exposed to radiation, had its original gray color.

The temple of the warrior goddess is located on the very top point Acropolis, and in the rays of the setting sun is created visual effect golden glow.

At the same time, observers get the impression that the temple is small in size. As you approach, the panorama expands and the building “overwhelms” with its massiveness.

Hyperbolic diagram of the curvature of the Parthenon (© A.Erud, Wikimedia Commons)

From the outside, a visual image emerges that the building has an ideal straight structure. In fact, most architectural elements devoid of straight lines:

• the upper parts of the steps have a slight deflection in the center, the columns are somewhat thicker in the center, and the corner ones have a larger volume compared to the rest;
• The pediments of the Parthenon face inward, while the entablatures protrude outward.

All these optical techniques actually made it possible to create the illusion of perfect straightness. In addition, the principle of the golden ratio was used in the construction of the temple.

The external facade of the structure was decorated with numerous metopes - relief images of the gods: Zeus, Apollo, winged Nike, etc. The Parthenon, like all sanctuaries of ancient Greece, was painted in bright colors.

Dominant in color palette there were shades of red, blue and gold. Over time, they have worn out and we can judge the beauty of the building only according to the words of ancient scrolls.

Parthenon – Temple of Three Religions

The fate of the Parthenon was such that it became a place where the words of three religions were heard - paganism, Orthodoxy and Islam. The history of the greatness of the temple did not last long.

Parthenon, Acropolis of Athens (Carole Raddato / flickr.com)

The last ruler who revered the wise goddess was Alexander the Great. Subsequently, Athens was subjected to numerous seizures. The temple was looted, the gilding was removed from the statues, and the sculptures themselves were barbarously destroyed. However, the cult of the goddess Athena was so high among the Athenians that the sanctuary was restored by the incredible efforts of the townspeople, despite the fact that the treasury was actually looted.

After restoration, the temple operated for another 800 years and became the last refuge of paganism in the territory of modern Greece. With the advent of Christian power, pagan traditions were still strong in the city. In order to stop idolatry in the 4th century. n. e. the monastery of Athena was turned into Orthodox Church in the name of the Blessed Virgin Mary.

The building was rebuilt in accordance with the canons of Orthodox architecture, but in general it looked the same as before. In its new form, the temple began to attract pilgrims from all over the Orthodox world. Emperors and generals came running for words of support for the servants of the new “old” shrine.

Reconstruction of the Parthenon (Emiliano Felicissimo / flickr.com)

In the 15th century Greece came under the influence of the Ottoman Empire. The new authorities first hastened to get rid of Christian symbols, and this time the Parthenon acquired the features of Muslim mosques. However, apart from excision of Christian subjects and words, no dramatic changes there was no change in the appearance of the temple. In the 17th century During the military clash between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League, the walls of the Parthenon were practically destroyed.

In 1840, restoration work began, which breathed new life into the religious building. The restoration process continues to this day with varying degrees of success.

Today, the fate of the Parthenon is again under threat. Financial problems that began after the country joined the EU became the main obstacles to the revival of the greatest historical monument.

The Parthenon Temple is one of the symbols of Greece, a monument of ancient architecture, located in the central part of the Athens Acropolis.

The Parthenon is an ancient temple, main symbol the capital of Greece, Athens and the entire country. Together with other buildings of the Athens Acropolis, the Parthenon is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The temple is dedicated to the patroness of the city, Athena the Virgin, who is also considered the patroness of the entire Attica - the area around the city.

Translated from ancient Greek, the Parthenon means “most pure”, “virgin”. Athena was awarded this epithet for her virginity, which was one of the fundamental qualities of the goddess. Scientists believe that the Christian cult of the Virgin Mary subsequently grew from the cult of the warrior maiden Athena.

The temple is located in the center of the Acropolis of Athens - the upper city of Athens. The Acropolis of Athens is a hill in the center of the city, which is a rock 150 m high above sea level with a flat top. On the upper platform of the acropolis, measuring 300 m by 170 m, various temples, palaces and sculptures have been located since archaic times.

Parthenon architecture

Thanks to the developed culture of the Athenian polis, history has brought down to this day the names of the people who built the temple. The marble tablets on which the city authorities wrote down their decrees indicate who built the Parthenon. The author of the project is the architect Iktin, the architect Callicrates supervised the construction of the temple, the great sculptor Phidias produced external finishing building and was the author of sculptures that decorated the pediments and interior of the temple. The general leadership was carried out by the great statesman and the founding father of Athenian democracy, Pericles.

The Parthenon is a classical ancient Greek temple, rectangular in its base, surrounded on all sides by a Doric colonnade. The central facades have 8 columns, the side facades have 17, the total number of columns in the Parthenon is 50.

The Parthenon is interesting primarily for its unique architectural design used in the construction of the temple. In order to avoid optical distortions, the authors of the project resorted to innovative architectural techniques: the columns were thickened in the central part, and the corner columns were also inclined towards the center of the temple and had a slightly larger volume. During the construction of the temple, the principle of the golden ratio was used. Thanks to the techniques used by the architects, the impression of absolutely straight lines of the temple and its perfect appearance is created.

The temple was almost entirely built from expensive Pentelic marble, and gold was widely used in the initial decoration. The temple stands on three steps one and a half meters high; from the central western façade of the building the steps used to enter the building were cut out. The total length of the building is 70 m, width - 31 m, height - 14 m.

Not all the treasures of the Parthenon have survived to this day: such a masterpiece of the temple as the 13-meter statue of Athena Parthenos by the great sculptor Phidias, which once stood in the center of the Parthenon, has been lost forever to humanity. Of the many sculptural groups representing scenes from the life of the ancient gods and decorating the pediments of the building, only 11 have survived to this day; another 19 sculptures were barbarously cut down in the 19th century and taken to Great Britain, where they are now kept in the British Museum.

History of the Athens Parthenon

Marble tablets, on which the city authorities wrote down their decrees and orders, have preserved for us the exact date when the Parthenon was built. The start of construction was 447 BC. e. The construction of the temple took 10 years, after which in 438 BC. e. it was open. The construction of the temple dedicated to the goddess Athena cost the city treasury 700 talents - more than 18 tons of silver.

In the 3rd century BC. e. Athens survived the Heruli invasion, during which the Parthenon was sacked and burned. The roof, ceilings and doors of the temple were damaged. During the restoration, ancient builders did not strive to restore the Parthenon to its original form, so architectural distortions were introduced into it.

For about a thousand years, the Parthenon was a pagan temple, however, after the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of Byzantium, it was converted into a Christian church, presumably in the 6th century AD. e. During the turbulent medieval history of the Balkans and Athens in particular, the Parthenon either became a Catholic church or returned to the disposal of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Constantinople.

In the 15th century, Athens and all of Greece were conquered by the Ottoman Turks, after which the Parthenon was turned into a mosque, and a military garrison, a pasha's palace and even a harem were located on the territory of the Athenian Acropolis. A heavy blow for the Parthenon was the Great Turkish war between the Christian states of Europe and Ottoman Empire. During the storming of Athens by the Venetians in 1687, the Parthenon was destroyed. The territory of the acropolis was fired from cannons, after which the temple, in which the gunpowder warehouse was located, exploded.

The Venetians who captured the city noted the colossal damage caused to the Parthenon by their own artillery. Three dozen columns were destroyed, the roof collapsed, some of the sculptures were destroyed, and the central section of the building collapsed. From that time on, the Parthenon fell into ruins and was never used as a temple again.

Throughout the 18th century, the Parthenon slowly collapsed: local residents used the ruins of the building as building material, and numerous European hunters for antique values ​​exported elements of sculptures and decoration of the building to their countries. The picture of the destruction of the Parthenon was completed by the British ambassador to Turkey, Thomas Bruce, in early XIX century, exported to Great Britain more than 200 boxes with sculptures, fragments of columns and other artifacts of the Parthenon.

As a result, it is impossible to give a definite answer to the question “Who destroyed the Parthenon?” The destruction of the great temple was the work of many people: from the Ottoman rulers of Greece and the inhabitants of Athens to connoisseurs of ancient art from Europe.

After Greece gained independence in the first half of the 19th century, the area of ​​the acropolis was cleared of later buildings such as a minaret, a medieval palace and even sculptures from the Roman period. The restoration of the temple began in the 19th century, but it was prevented by the earthquake of 1894, which further destroyed the building. The reconstruction of the Parthenon by Greek architects continued from the beginning of the 20th century until the middle of the century, after which the temple acquired its modern appearance. However, restoration and archaeological work did not stop after this and continues to this day.

What now

Nowadays, the Parthenon is the main attraction of Athens, one of the national shrines of Greece and the heritage of all mankind. The ideal appearance of the temple, although not completely preserved to this day, not only gives an idea of ​​the cultural and technical achievements of ancient Greece, but is also a symbol of the possibilities of human genius. The Parthenon annually attracts millions of tourists to Athens, and since 1987, together with the entire territory of the Acropolis of Athens, it has been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Where is the Parthenon

The Parthenon is located on the territory of the Acropolis of Athens in the very center of the Greek capital. In order to get to the Upper Town Hill, you need to get to the center of Athens. When traveling by Athens Skytrain, you need to get off at Akropolis station on the Athens Metro Red Line. Also, the large pedestrian street Dionysiou Areopagitou leads to the hill with the temple located on it.

Excursions to the Acropolis

You can visit the territory of the acropolis on your own; to do this, you need to purchase a ticket at the ticket office at the entrance to the territory of the archaeological site.

Opening hours of the Acropolis of Athens: 8:00 - 20:00, seven days a week.

Ticket price: 12 EUR, ticket is valid for 4 days from the date of purchase.

When visiting the acropolis, it is strictly forbidden to touch ancient buildings with your hands, including columns.

Ordering an individual tour of the Acropolis and visiting the main attractions with a Russian-speaking guide will cost 320 EUR. This excursion also includes a sightseeing tour of Athens. Duration of the excursion: from 2 to 5 hours.