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Introduction

4.2 Behavior learning and behavior modification

person in the organization

5.1 Results of the study

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Any social community of people (family, company team) is influenced by the outside world, the immediate environment and its internal environment. A manufacturing enterprise or trading company constantly analyzes changes in its immediate environment (sales market, competitor behavior, price dynamics, reliability of partners and suppliers) and improves the management system of its organization.

The stable development of an enterprise, the growth of its production and financial indicators make it possible to increase its economic parameters, that is, to apply the most desirable growth strategy. Most often it is necessary to apply a strategy of limited growth - to plan a slow and careful increase in economic and social indicators. And the most undesirable changes in the internal environment of the enterprise occur with the “last resort” strategy - the situation of the enterprise has become so threatening that it is necessary to reduce the number of employees.

The transition to this strategy is a symptom of the possible liquidation of the company. The internal environment is very changeable, since it contains various variable factors: the goals of the organization as a whole or its individual structural divisions may change, in this case it is often advisable to change the management structure; new goals will require changes in the tasks or technologies being solved. But the main source of change in any management model is people and their relationships in the production process. It is the ability to purposefully influence team members to achieve the organization’s goals that determines the talent of a leader and the successful activities of the organization. behavior personality practice

The relevance of the presented topic lies in the fact that currently the search for ways to enhance human potential within an organization and take into account the psychological characteristics of personnel are one of the decisive factors in increasing the efficiency of any organization.

The purpose of this work is to develop the theoretical, methodological and applied foundations for studying the influence of the environment on personality and behavior and organizational culture as the most important elements of the personnel management system.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set and solved:

Generalization and systematization of theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of organizational behavior proposed by domestic and foreign researchers;

Justification of the expediency and necessity of considering the problems of establishing interaction between humans and organizational behavior;

Identification of factors that determine the labor behavior of personnel in the workplace under the influence of various factors;

The object of study of the organization's environment is the employees themselves, as well as the factors influencing their behavior in the business process.

The subject of this study is organizational behavior as interrelated and interdependent elements of personnel management.

I. Theoretical aspects of the influence of the environment on personality and behavior

1. Prerequisites for the development of organizational behavior

The study of modern theories of organizational behavior requires consideration of the history of the development of science as a whole, which, together with society, has gone through the path of evolution - progressive development and consistent improvement. It is precisely this natural form of the development of science that confirms its viability.

In the development of organizational behavior (OB), two stages should be distinguished: empirical and scientific.

The first attempts to understand human behavior arose in ancient times on an empirical basis. Fundamental problems of personality were formulated in the works of the great ancient Greek thinkers Socrates, Plato, Aristotle and other philosophers in the 4th - 5th centuries. BC. For the first time in the history of European social thought, they posed the problem of the relationship between the individual and society, the social environment, the relationship between individualism and collectivism.

Issues of individual behavior in the environment have been considered in various religious teachings. In particular, the idea of the primacy of the collective over the individual fueled early Christianity and, together with Orthodoxy, came to Rus'. Orthodoxy is characterized by a special spiritual spirit, a sense of belonging and unity, empathy, mutual love and sacrifice.

The prerequisites for the formation of the scientific concept of organizational behavior can be considered the ideas of freedom, equality and fraternity of the French enlighteners (Voltaire, J-J. Rousseau, P.A. Holbach), utopian socialists (T. More, T. Campanella, R. Owen) in the middle 18th century, class doctrine (K. Marx), psychology of peoples (W. Wundt) in Germany in the middle of the 19th century.

Many ideas of thinkers of the past and present are directly related to the problems of interpersonal communication and group interaction of people.

Organizational behavior has been developing on a scientific basis since the mid-nineteenth century. as part of the following exercises.

Determinism is the doctrine of the causality and regularity of all phenomena. Formed in the mid-nineteenth century, it has two forms - mechanistic and biological.

Behaviorism is the leading direction in American psychology at the beginning of the twentieth century. (J. Watson, E. Thorndike; in Russia associated with the works of the famous physiologist IP. Pavlov).

According to this concept, the analysis of behavior should be strictly objective and limited to externally observable reactions. Everything that happens inside a person is impossible to study, so a person acts as a kind of “black box”. Personality is nothing more than a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person; one or another behavioral reaction occurs in response to a certain stimulus or situation.

Gestalt psychology is one of the main schools of foreign psychology at the beginning of the twentieth century. (M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Levin). Uses the principle of consistency and priority of the whole in the dynamics of motivation of human behavior. Based on the achievements of physics in Germany during the same period. Interprets human behavior according to the type of interaction of particles in a field, ignoring consciousness and psychological aspects of behavior.

Freudianism is a psychological concept of the early twentieth century. Austrian scientist S. Freud and the doctrine of psychoanalysis that developed on its basis, based on the study of the deep layers of the human psyche, placing the focus on unconscious mental processes and motivations. In explaining human behavior, a three-level model of the mental structure of the personality was used (Id-It, Ego - I and the Super-Ego - Super-Ego), which made it possible to highlight the problems of the psychology of business communication, conflicts, mechanisms for relieving stress and methods of psychological protection.

Humanistic psychology is the leading direction of modern psychology. Formed in the 1960s. in the USA (G. A. Murray, G. Murphy, G. Allport, etc.). One of the foundations of the concept was existentialism - an orientation towards the problems and difficulties of personal choice and responsibility in determining the meaning of existence. Defends the right of a person to be himself, to preserve his integrity, uniqueness and originality.

Managerial psychology is the leading branch of modern knowledge (reflecting an interdisciplinary scientific and practical direction, the purpose of which is psychological support for solving problems of management activity. Managerial psychology studies the personality of an employee in an organization and the influence of the organization on the socio-psychological structure and development of the team.

Each scientific direction had its limitations, but overall contributed to the formation of the modern concept of organizational behavior.

1.1 Organizational behavior in the management system

The development of theories of organizational behavior in the management system began in the USA in the 1930s. within the framework of the school of human relations (E. Mayo, F. Roethlisberger, M. P. Follett, etc.).

The main provisions of the school of human relations are as follows:

· the work itself is less important than the social and psychological position of a person in the organization;

· all management problems should be considered through the prism of human relations, taking into account socio-psychological factors;

· the impact on the employee in order to increase labor productivity should be aimed at satisfying his social and psychological needs, and not creating physiological working conditions;

· the employee’s activities are motivated primarily by established group norms of behavior, as well as by the feelings and moods of the individual;

· rigid hierarchy of the organization is incompatible with human nature and his freedom.

The most important elements of the theory of human relations are: a system of mutual connections and information, a system of confessional conversations with workers, participation in decision making, organization of informal groups and their management.

The main conclusion of the human relations school was this: enterprise is a social system consisting of informal groups that regulate human command.

Representatives of this trend have revealed that people’s actions are motivated not only and not so much by economic factors, but by various needs that can only be partially satisfied with the help of money. As a result, the “economic man” model, based on the concept of mechanistic rationalism (F. Tylor, G. Emerson, G. Gantg, etc.), was replaced by the “social man” model, in which interests, needs and individual expectations, group norms and values. Thus, a fundamentally new view of human resources has been formed, considering the employee’s personality as a value of the organization, which has made it possible to develop issues of motivation, satisfaction, and group dynamics in the process of staff work.

In general, the provisions of this stage of scientific development served as the basis for a behavioral approach to human resource management, which is still relevant today.

2. The concept of personality in an organization

Personality is a combination of stable characteristics of a person. According to the definitions of social psychologists, personality is manifested through the characteristics of an individual and his behavior, which reflect the unique nature of the individual's adaptation to the environment. Traditionally, psychologists have described individual behavior in terms of individual personality traits, such as aggressiveness, honesty, self-confidence, openness or withdrawal, decisiveness and indecisiveness. But now many psychologists argue that human behavior changes depending on the situation. For example, many people are honest in some situations and dishonest in others. Personal factors and the external environment, acting together, determine the behavior of the individual, and often the situation still has a greater influence on this behavior than the characteristics of the individual. The basis of any organization and its main wealth are people. A good organization strives to maximize the potential of its employees at work and to develop intensively from that potential, and is also interested in its employees behaving in certain ways.

Human behavior is a set of conscious, socially significant actions determined by the position occupied, i.e. understanding of one's own functions. The behavior of its employees that is effective for an organization is manifested in the fact that they perform their duties reliably and conscientiously, are ready, in the name of the interests of the business in a changing situation, to go beyond their immediate responsibilities, making additional efforts, being active, and finding opportunities for cooperation.

A person’s behavior in an organization is determined by his own (personal) traits, the influence of the conditions for the formation of individual activity - the characteristics of the group in which he is included, the conditions of joint activity, the uniqueness of the organization and the country in which he works. Accordingly, the possibilities for a person’s successful inclusion in the organizational environment and learning behavior depend equally on the characteristics of both this environment and the characteristics of his personality.

Personality traits are formed under the influence of natural properties (physiological state of the body, characteristics of higher nervous activity, memory, emotions, feelings, perception), as well as social factors (education, experience, habits, social circle, etc.).

Any personality is characterized by:

· general qualities (intelligence, intelligence, observation, efficiency, organization, sociability, etc.);

· specific properties (the ability to perform one or another type of activity); abilities can be general, inherent to one degree or another in all people (to perceive, think, learn, work); elementary particulars (decisiveness, perseverance, ear for music, critical thinking, etc.); complex private, including professional (for certain types of activities), special (intersocial, i.e. focused on organizing the interaction of people, managing them, and constructive; i.e. aimed at creating specific objects in certain areas of activity) ;

· preparedness for a certain type of activity (in the form of a set of knowledge, abilities, skills); * orientation (orientation of social activity that arose under the influence of social moments

· interests, aspirations, ideals, beliefs);

· a certain character;

· biologically determined characteristics (for example, temperament);

· psychological characteristics: range of activity (breadth, depth), which can be general, specific, special; work style (a form of influence based on knowledge, experience, emotions) and mental dynamics (characterized by strength, mobility, excitability);

· mental state, i.e. persistent mental phenomena inherent in a person over a relatively long period (excitement, apathy, depression, etc.).

Personality traits significantly influence the quality of performance of the functions assigned to a person, his work style, and relationships with others. The stability of these traits makes it possible to predict the behavior of an individual, i.e. actions expressing her subjective reaction to the situation and others. The following can be identified as the fundamental principles of human behavior: abilities, predispositions, needs, expectations, perceptions, values.

Capabilities. People differ most clearly in their individual abilities and inherent human qualities. Some people have more talent for music and singing, others for computer programming, and others for writing written reports. Differences in intellectual abilities and physical characteristics are partly explained by heredity, partly by training and experience,

Organizations almost always try to take advantage of differences in abilities when deciding what position and what kind of work a particular employee will do. Selecting the person who is best able to do a particular job is a means of increasing the benefits of specialization,

Predisposition, talent is a person’s potential in relation to performing a specific job. Being the result of a combination of innate qualities and acquired experience, giftedness becomes a talent that opens up in a specific area. Managers, in particular, must be able to assess the capabilities of people. The predisposition to management is very strong. important when selecting candidates for management training.

Needs are an internal state of psychological or physiological feeling of lack of something. The main ones are considered to be the physiological needs for food, drink, warmth, as well as the psychological needs of involvement, belonging to society, a group of people. Many people have a need for power and influence, but this may not manifest itself for a long time until their basic needs are satisfied. The organization must create situations in which meeting the employee's needs would lead to the achievement of the organization's goals.

Expectations. People, based on past experiences and assessments of the current situation, form expectations regarding the results of their behavior. Consciously or subconsciously, they decide how likely it is that something meaningful to them will happen. These expectations have a significant impact on behavior. If an employee expects that his extra efforts will be rewarded, then he is likely to put in them. In the absence of such expectations, it is difficult to count on additional efforts on the part of the employee.

Perception significantly influences expectations and behavior. For practical purposes, perception can be defined as the intellectual awareness of the stimuli derived from sensations. People react not to what is actually happening in their environment, but to what they perceive as actually happening. All events influence behavior only to the extent that they are perceived by the person himself. If management wants employees to strive to achieve the organization's goals, it must prove to employees that the desired behavior will lead to the satisfaction of their individual needs.

Attitude can be defined in terms of likes and dislikes, like dislike or attachment to objects, people, groups or any manifestations of the environment. Attitudes form a biased perception of the environment and thereby influence behavior. Examples include various prejudices. People who hold the view that women are incompetent as workers and inferior to men tend to exaggerate all the mistakes women make and fail to appreciate and accept evidence that they are equally competent.

Values are general beliefs, beliefs about what is good and bad or indifferent. Value involves a subjective ranking of importance, quality, or recognition of something as good. Values, like many other individual traits, are acquired through learning. They are taught in schools, they are raised in children by parents, they are strengthened in other social contacts and even through the means of entertainment and leisure. The specific values of managers, especially senior managers, are often reflected in the goals and policies of the organization.

Every organization, consciously or unconsciously, establishes its own value system: This system constitutes the organizational culture or moral character of the organization. The organization strives to have its own morals and customs.

These findings are significant because they point to the importance of creating a work environment that supports the type of behavior desired by the organization.

Managers must improve their ability to direct employee behavior to achieve organizational goals by using people who have the traits desirable for the task, but at the same time create a work environment that promotes the maintenance of those traits.

The work environment is the totality of all internal factors that, through the management process, are formed in relation to the needs of the organization. There is an internal and external environment of the enterprise.

2.1 Internal and external environment of the enterprise

The integrity of the organization and its openness as a system determine a clear separation of the internal and external environments, and the organization’s dependence on external factors.

Since an organization is created by people, all its elements and connections are, to one degree or another, variable in nature. Variables of the internal environment of an organization include structures (production, management), goals and objectives of management, technology, people.

The most important part of the internal and external environment of an organization is infrastructure, that is, a complex of elements and connections that provide living conditions for the organization’s team and serve the basic processes of production and management. Infrastructure includes communications and organizational culture, in which a huge role is given to people, their knowledge, abilities and the art of interaction.

Communications as connecting links in information management processes are a necessary condition for management itself. Communications are both means of communication (air, water), and forms of transmission of messages (oral, written), and communication channels (telephone, radio, etc.). But the main thing in the communication process is not just the exchange of information between two or more people, but the exchange of meaning and content of information. According to the figurative expression of the famous management specialist R. Falmer, good communication, like clean air, is usually taken for granted until its absence begins to spoil our lives. The quality of communication processes and, in general, production and management processes largely depends on the organizational culture of the organization.

Organizational culture is a system of norms and values that distinguish employees and the organization as a whole. The system of norms and values of an individual is complexly dependent on his individuality and personality (character, views, abilities, education, etc.) and on the attitudes and values in the organization, which also depend on many factors, including the organization’s leaders. All these elements together determine the behavior of employees and the success of the organization (Fig. 1).

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Rice. 1. Factors influencing individual behavior and success of activities.

An important element of culture is values, that is, shared beliefs about what is good, what is bad, or what is indifferent in life. Values are acquired through upbringing, education, social contacts, etc.

Organizational culture helps solve problems:

· coordination carried out through established procedures and rules of conduct;

· motivation, realized by explaining to employees the meaning of the work being performed;

· profiling, which allows you to gain a characteristic difference from other enterprises;

· attracting personnel by promoting the advantages of your enterprise among applicants for job vacancies.

Any organization has strengths and weaknesses, including organizational culture. Weaknesses must be overcome using existing strengths.

In any case, collective events with a cultural orientation are needed, during which, with some caution, the compliance of the main decision-making levers with one’s own culture is clarified, their mutual adjustment is carried out, and the issue of the strategic adequacy of the intra-company culture is critically resolved.

The success of an organization largely depends on taking into account external factors, namely suppliers (labor, materials, capital), competitors, laws and government bodies, international events, scientific and technical progress, etc.

3. Interaction between a person and an organization

In order to understand how the interaction of a person with an organization is structured, it is necessary to understand what the essence of the problem of interaction between a person and an organization is, what personality characteristics determine a person’s behavior in an organization and what characteristics of the organizational environment influence a person’s inclusion in the organization’s activities.

3.1 Model of interaction between a person and the organizational environment

Systematically, human behavior in an organization can be presented from two positions: 1) from the position of interaction of a person with the organizational environment (in this case, the person is at the center of the model) and 2) from the position of an organization that includes individuals (in this case, the organization as a whole is starting point of consideration).

If the initial consideration of the interaction between a person and the organizational environment is a person, the model of this interaction can be described as follows (Fig. 2).

· A person, interacting with the organizational environment, receives stimulating influences from it that encourage action.

· A person, under the influence of stimulating signals from the organizational environment, carries out certain actions.

· Actions carried out by a person lead to the performance of certain jobs and at the same time have a certain impact on the organizational environment.

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Rice. 2. Model of inclusion of a person in the organizational environment.

In this model, the organizational environment includes those elements of the organizational environment that interact with a person. Stimuli cover the full range of possible stimuli, which may include speech and written signals, the actions of other people, light signals, etc. In the model, a person is represented as a biological and social being with certain physiological and other kinds of needs, experience, knowledge, skills, morals, values, etc. Reaction to stimulating influences covers the perception of these influences by a person, their assessment and conscious or unconscious decision-making about response actions. actions and behavior include thinking, body movements, speech, facial expressions, exclamations, gestures, etc. The results of the work consist of two parts. The first is what a person has achieved for himself by responding to incentives, what problems he has solved caused by stimulating influences.

From the position of the organization, the employee is considered as a component of human resources that represent the main value of the organization and form its key competitive advantages.

II. Adaptation of a person to the organizational environment

One of the main results of interaction between a person and an organization is that a person, analyzing and evaluating the results of his work in the organization, revealing the reasons for successes and failures in interaction with the organizational environment, analyzing the experience and behavior of his colleagues, thinking about the advice and recommendations of his superiors and colleagues, makes certain conclusions for himself, which to one degree or another affect his behavior, lead to a change in his behavior in order to adapt to the organization, in order to achieve better interaction with the organizational environment.

4. Teaching behavior in the organization

It is obvious that the perception and assessment of one’s experience, as well as the process of adaptation to the conditions and requirements of the organizational environment, are largely individual in nature. In the same environment, people behave differently. A person seems to have two degrees of freedom in constructing his behavior in an organization. On the one hand, he has the freedom to choose forms of behavior: to accept or not to accept the forms and norms of behavior existing in the organization, on the other hand, he can accept or not accept the values of the organization, share or not share its goals and philosophy. Depending on the combination of these fundamental components of behavior, four extreme types of human behavior in an organization can be distinguished.

First type: values and norms of behavior are fully accepted. In this case, the person tries to behave in such a way that his actions do not in any way conflict with the interests of the organization. He sincerely tries to be disciplined, to fulfill his role fully in accordance with the norms and forms of behavior accepted in the organization. Therefore, the results of such a person’s actions mainly depend on his personal capabilities and abilities and on how correctly the content of his role is defined. This type of behavior can be described as that of a dedicated and disciplined member of the organization.

The second type: a person does not accept the values of the organization, but tries to behave in full compliance with the norms and forms of behavior accepted in the organization. Such a person can be described as an opportunist. He does everything correctly and according to the rules, but he cannot be considered a reliable member of the organization, since, although he is a good and efficient worker, he can nevertheless leave the organization at any time or take actions that may be contrary to the interests of the organization, but consistent with his own interests. For example, such a person will be willing to participate in a strike in order to achieve a salary increase.

Third type: a person accepts the values of the organization, but does not accept the norms of behavior existing in it. In this case, a person can create many difficulties in relationships with colleagues and management; he looks like an original. However, if an organization can afford to abandon established norms of behavior in relation to individual members and create a state of freedom of choice in forms of behavior for such members, they can find their place in the organization and bring benefit to it.

Fourth type: the individual does not accept either the norms of behavior or the values of the organization. This is an open rebel who constantly comes into conflict with the organizational environment and creates conflict situations. It would be wrong to assume that this type of behavior is absolutely unacceptable in an organization and that people who behave in this way are not needed by the organization. However, in most cases, “rebels” give rise to many problems that significantly complicate the life of the organization and even cause great damage to it (Fig. 3).

Fig.3. Matrix of types of inclusion of a person in an organization.

Naturally, the organization is interested in its members singing themselves in a certain way. A possible approach to solving this problem is the selection of people with certain qualities that can guarantee the behavior of its members desired by the organization. However, it should be recognized that this approach has limited application, since, firstly, it is not always possible to find people with the necessary characteristics, and secondly, there is no absolute guarantee that they will behave in the manner expected by the organization, and thirdly, the requirements for the behavior of members of the organization from the organizational environment may change over time, contradicting the criteria by which people were selected for the organization.

The second approach, which in principle does not exclude the first, is that the organization influences a person, forcing him to modify his behavior in the direction it needs. This approach is possible and is based on the fact that a person has the ability to learn behavior, change his behavior based on awareness of his previous behavioral experience and the requirements for his behavior from the environment.

Behavioral learning can be defined as a process of changing a person’s behavior that is fairly stable over time on the basis of experience that reflects the person’s actions and the reaction of the environment to these actions.

Learning behavior is characterized by several aspects. Firstly, learning can come both from one’s own experience and from the experience of other people. Secondly, learning behavior does not necessarily concern only actual behavior. It may concern potential behavior, e.g. such behavior that can be carried out by a person, but which is not carried out by him in his practice of behavior. Thirdly, learning behavior is always expressed in a change in the person. Even in the case when immediate behavior has not undergone changes, the person already becomes different, as his behavioral potential changes.

There are three types of behavioral learning. The first type is associated with the reflexive behavior of a person, with what is called in the teachings of I. Pavlov a conditioned and unconditioned reflex. If, for example, a boss comes to his subordinates when he is dissatisfied with something, irritated and intends to reprimand them, then any appearance of the boss can cause fear in his subordinates, a desire to avoid this meeting, regardless of why he came to them. That is, the appearance of the boss develops a conditioned reflex of the desire to hide from his eyes.

The second type of behavioral learning is based on the fact that a person draws conclusions from the consequences of his previous experience and consciously adjusts and changes his behavior. The theoretical description of this type of learning is primarily based on research

B. Skinner, who created the foundations of the theory of consolidation of implemented behavior depending on its consequences. The essence of this theory comes down to the fact that if a person sees that his behavior leads to favorable consequences, then he strives to repeat this behavior, but if the consequences turn out to be negative, then the desire to continue to behave in a similar way will be significantly reduced. That is, human behavior is determined by conscious comprehension of the results of previous behavior.

The third type of learning behavior is learning based on observation of behavior. Usually this is an observation of someone else's behavior. A person, regularly observing how the people around him behave, automatically begins to adjust his own behavior to their behavior. He adopts their style and manners, skills in performing operations, etc. Often, purposeful observation of other people's behavior is carried out in order to adopt something useful for oneself. With the development of means of video recording of an object, the possibilities of observation are expanding and, in particular, the object of observation is expanding. Now a person can view records of his own behavior, which can also significantly influence the adjustment of behavior.

It is obvious that all three types of behavioral learning must be taken into account by the organization's management in its attempts to correct and shape the behavior of organization members. Without diminishing the importance of each of these types of learning, however, it should be stated that the second type of learning plays an extremely important role in the process of purposeful formation of human behavior in an organization.

What does a person learn in an organization, what aspects of his behavior are adjusted or changed during the learning process? Firstly, upon coming to an organization and further carrying out his activities in it, a person studies his functional role: what he should do to do his job better, how to carry out his work more effectively, how and with whom to communicate in the process of work. At the same time, he learns to place emphasis in the work he performs from the point of view of what is considered more important in the organization and what is less important in his activities, what is rewarded for, and what is included in the assessment of the quality of his work. Secondly, in an organization, a person learns to perform formal procedural actions, such as filling out various questionnaires and forms, filling out applications, scheduling and holding meetings, transmitting, receiving and responding to information received, temporarily leaving the workplace, coming and leaving work, parking a car, wearing a certain type of clothing, etc. Thirdly, a person learns to correctly understand and take his place in the organization. He learns the norms, values and informal groups and relationships that exist in the organization, learns to behave correctly with colleagues and management, determines for himself with whom to have close relationships and who to stay away from, who to trust, who to rely on and who to fear. . Fourthly, a person learns how to solve his own problems in the organization, how to achieve his goals. For example, he learns how to make a career in an organization. Or how to achieve certain incentives and rewards. A person can also learn how to use the capabilities of an organization or the capabilities of its individual members in order to solve their personal problems not related to the activities of the organization. The worker can learn how to avoid difficult and risky tasks, and even how to appear to be working hard while doing nothing.

4.1 The process of conscious learning of behavior in an organization

In order to describe the process of a person’s conscious learning to behave in an organization and point out the connection of this process with the management of a person in an organization, let us consider in very general terms several basic elements that determine human behavior in an organization. These elements will be discussed in more detail in the second chapter, devoted to issues of motivation.

Human activity is always connected and initiated by the presence of certain motivating principles. They force him to start doing something, to make some effort, i.e. carry out actions. Stimuli, which are external influences on a person, direct his activity in a certain direction, give this activity a certain orientation and boundaries. A person’s behavioral reaction is manifested in the fact that he chooses what and how to do, and carries out specific actions leading to a specific result. His reaction is strongly related to stimuli. However, it has an individual character, since it reflects the varying degrees of influence of incentives on the behavior of different people. A person’s reaction can manifest itself both in the form of his certain actions, and in the form of his developing a certain disposition. Depending on the consequences for a person, his behavioral reaction is reinforced in order to strengthen it and give it stability, or it is abandoned. Consolidation of implemented behavior or abandonment of it plays a very important role in the formation of human behavior, since it is through this that a conscious adjustment or even change in a person’s behavior occurs in the direction desired by the organization.

The process of conscious learning of behavior is carried out according to the following logical scheme. Faced with the need to do something, a person, in accordance with his existing idea of how it should be done, an idea based on the level of learning behavior he has achieved, carries out certain actions. These actions lead to results adequate to them, which give rise to certain consequences for the person who carried them out. Depending on how he perceives and evaluates the consequences of his actions, a person draws conclusions regarding his behavior. This leads to further learning of his behavior and possible correction of his behavior.

Thus, changes in human behavior can be seen as a consequence of behavioral learning. Learning behavior itself is a function of the consequences for a person of his actions, a function of the consequences of his behavior. The presence of such a relationship between behavior, learning behavior and the consequences for a person of his behavior makes it possible for an organization to correct and shape the behavior of its members. This is primarily due to the fact that management and the organizational environment can determine and purposefully shape the consequences of their behavior for members of their organization, actively becoming involved in the process of learning behavior at the stage of a person receiving certain consequences of the actions taken.

4.2 Behavior learning and modification of human behavior in an organization

Obviously, the consequences of actions depend on how the person behaved, what he did. However, they directly depend on those who, evaluating a person’s action, compensate for his actions and efforts. In this case, compensation is understood in the broadest sense as an external reaction to a person’s behavior, expressed in the fact that a person either gains something or loses something, achieves something or does not achieve something as a result of his actions. form of a certain behavior of action. Compensation can be made in various forms - from material reward or punishment to verbal approval or condemnation. Compensation plays an extremely important role in learning behavior, since it has a fundamental influence on whether the behavior is reinforced or abandoned. If there is no compensation that causes a person to imagine the consequences of his actions, then in fact no noticeable modification of behavior occurs, since behavior is not learned. Therefore, compensation in people management plays not only the role of reward for work performed or the role of a means of satisfying the needs of employees, but also the role of a means of modifying human behavior.

If we look at compensation from the standpoint of behavior learning and behavior modification, we can distinguish four different types of compensation that lead to the consolidation or abandonment of the implemented behavior. The first type is positive compensation. The essence of this type is that rewards are provided that lead to pleasant consequences for the person. The form of remuneration can be completely different. Positive compensation can be used by management to reinforce desired employee behavior. It is important to take into account that the reward must be clearly tied to the desired behavior, i.e. a person must know why he received the reward. The reward must follow the performance of the desired behavior and, finally, the reward must be consistent with the interests of the person being rewarded.

The second type is negative compensation. The essence of this type is that the desired behavior immediately leads to the elimination of circumstances or stimuli that are undesirable for the person. For example, a person who does not behave properly is subject to boycott by others. As soon as he begins to behave correctly, from the point of view of those around him, they stop the boycott. With the second type of compensation, as with the first, it is important that the reaction of the environment or management to a change in behavior occurs as quickly as possible and, of course, is individual in nature.

The third type of compensation is punishment. In this case, unlike the first two types, compensation occurs as a reaction to “wrong” behavior that is undesirable for management or the organization.

If in the first two types the desired behavior is reinforced, then in this case the undesirable behavior is eliminated. Compensation in the form of punishment consists in the fact that a person receives negative, unpleasant consequences of behavior. For example, he may be fined, lose a bonus or promotion at work, receive a reprimand, etc. The purpose of punishment is to narrow or eliminate the behavior of its members that is undesirable for the organization. Although punishment outwardly appears to be the complete opposite of positive compensation—they reward here, they take away here—from the point of view of learning human behavior, this is not the case. This type of compensation is less effective than positive compensation. This is due to the fact that punishment has a less predictable and sustainable effect than encouragement, often leading to indirect negative consequences, such as personal resentment towards the punishing manager, loss of interest in work, a change in attitude towards one’s activities, etc. Therefore, management should treat punishment as a method of compensation in order to teach behavior very carefully and carefully monitor its possible negative side effects.

The fourth type of compensation is extinguishing unwanted behavior. The essence of this type of compensation is as follows. A person who carries out some undesirable actions, to which a positive reaction was previously received, stops them after some time; if a positive reaction to these actions ceases to occur, that is, in other words, if you stop reacting positively to some actions, then after a while time they will begin to shrink. For example, a young man who successfully studied at the university and received praise from teachers for active speeches in class and for comments on the speeches of his colleagues, when he comes to work in the organization, will also try to intervene in all discussions and conversations and give his comments and assessments to the statements of others . However, if you do not pay attention to this, then after a while he will begin to get rid of this bad habit. The choice of the type and specific form of compensation plays a very important role in successfully modifying human behavior in the direction desired by the organization. However, the choice of compensation frequency for the purpose of targeted learning of behavior also plays an equally important role. In general, there can be two approaches to timing compensation. One approach is compensation after each instance of human action. This approach is called continuous compensation. Another, fundamentally different approach to choosing the timing and frequency of compensation is that compensation does not occur after every action taken. This is periodic compensation. Although there are fundamental differences between the two approaches, it is impossible to say which is more effective because their effectiveness depends significantly on the situation in which they are applied. At the same time, it is noted that the first approach works better when it is applied to a new employee learning his role in the organization. The second approach is best used when an organization wants to make certain behavior of its member sustainable.

Within periodic compensation there are four different types. The first type is compensation at a fixed time interval. This approach suffers from the disadvantage that the desired behavior of employees manifests itself unevenly, increasing at those moments when fixation or compensation is carried out, and decreasing in the intervals between them.

The second type is compensation at a variable time interval. In this case, the interval between possible compensation and the frequency of compensation are not fixed. This approach may not apply to all forms of compensation. However, it gives better results, since the uncertain moment of compensation keeps you in suspense and forces you to work and behave better. Although after the onset of compensation there may be a sharp decline in the behavior of its members desired by the organization.

The third type, unlike the first and second, takes as its basis not the time interval, but the volume of actions. This type is called fixed rate compensation. With this approach, compensation occurs after a certain fixed number of actions have been completed. Practice shows that this type of compensation gives better results in shaping behavior than the first and second types of periodic compensation.

The last, fourth type, also basically has compensation depending on the volume of actions. However, this is compensation based on a variable rate. This approach is considered highly effective, since compensation can occur after any single action, which encourages employees to constantly perform the “right” actions. For this approach to be truly effective in behavior modification, it is important that the time intervals between compensation are not very long. At the same time, you need to know that this approach has limited use. For example, it is of little use to such a form of compensation as wages.

The considered issues of learning behavior indicate that a person, based on his experience, adapts to the organizational environment, changing his behavior. An organization and its leadership can actively influence the modification of human behavior. However, both the means used to influence the process of learning behavior and the frequency of their use depend on the situation in which the person is located, and must be selected by the manager taking into account the variety of factors influencing human behavior. First of all, taking into account the needs and motives of a person for activity.

III. Organizational Behavior Research

5. Use of sociological research in the enterprise

It is known that public opinion is not only a certain phenomenon of people’s consciousness. It is a powerful tool for social impact. In other words, public opinion acts as a specific motivating force that regulates people's behavior and their practical activities. Therefore, it is obvious that the state of public opinion about the enterprise, about the actions of its management and the transformations being carried out at it, from what the company’s employees think about this, will largely depend on their attitude towards their production activities, their activity in solving the problems facing the departments . This means the results of the enterprise’s activities, its ability not only to survive in the constantly changing conditions of the modern world, but also to develop and improve.

It was a clear awareness of this problem that led to the creation of a sociological service at the plant, whose tasks included the study and analysis of organizational behavior in the Severstal company.

The data obtained were used, and are being used, in the development of the enterprise’s information policy, the goal of which is to develop theoretical principles and practical recommendations for improving the mechanism for managing the labor behavior of industrial enterprise personnel in modern conditions.

The Severstal company is one of the leading representatives of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy. Located in Cherepovets. Providing half of the metal rolling needs of various enterprises.

The main goal in managing this company is effective management, which acts as the main condition for effective business. The quality of management largely determines the competitiveness of an enterprise, therefore the company pays special attention to the development of the organizational climate of the enterprise.

Since 1999, Severstal OJSC has been implementing the project “System for the development of managers of Severstal OJSC under the MBA program” (English: Master of Business Administration - Master of Business Administration) in both Russian and English. In 2006, 14 top managers of the company completed their training.

It is important for the company that employees, regardless of category - workers or managers - have the opportunity and receive advanced knowledge. This is the most important part of the corporate culture being created.

The company's value is significant and priority standards of behavior in the company.

· Continuous improvement by unleashing the creative potential of employees

· Result oriented

· Team spirit

· Trust and honesty

2.2. Properties and process of perception

Perception is most correctly designated as perceiving (perceptual) activity of the subject. The result of this activity is an image as a holistic psychological representation of a stimulus (object, event, etc.) that we encounter in real life.

Properties of perception. TO basic properties of perception As a cognitive (cognitive) socio-psychological process, the following should be included: objectivity, structure, activity, apperception, contextuality, meaningfulness.

Objectivity (imagery) of perception– this is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of unrelated sensations (individual characteristics of stimuli), but in the form of separate holistic (interrelated properties of stimuli) images of specific objects. These images have a relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions of their perception change (changes in illumination, size, shape, intensity, etc.). This is explained by the fact that perception is a kind of self-regulating action that has a feedback mechanism and adapts to the characteristics of the perceived object and the conditions of its existence, which allows a person to navigate in an infinitely diverse and changeable world.

Structurality is that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We actually perceive a generalized structure abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over some time. Perception brings to our consciousness the simulated structure of an object or phenomenon that we encounter in the real world. For example, a person listening to music (a certain sequence of notes) understands the melody, that is, its mental structure, as a whole, and not just the first or last note sounding separately at the moment.

Activity consists in focusing our attention at any given moment on only one stimulus or a specific group of stimuli, while other objects of the real world are the background of our perception, that is, they are not actively reflected in our consciousness. We can say that the background of perception does not have the properties of apperception and meaningfulness at a given moment in time.

Apperception perception means the activity of the mental process of selecting and structuring previous and new internal experience as focusing attention within the sphere of consciousness. Previous perceptual experience plays a major role in the process of perception. Moreover, the characteristics of perception are determined by all previous practical and life experience of a person, since the process of perception is inseparable from his activity. It should be noted that perception depends not only on the nature of the irritation, but also on the subject himself. It is not the eye and ear that perceives, but a specific living person. Therefore, the accuracy and clarity of perception is always affected not only by illusions (effects) of perception, but also by the characteristics of a person’s personality, his knowledge, motives, interests, attitudes, and emotional state (Fig. 2.1.3). The dependence of perception on the general content of mental life is called apperception.

Contextuality of perception (or situational influence)– the influence of a certain context of perception. Not a single behavioral act, not a single thought, nothing in the body can happen in a physical and psychological vacuum. People's reactions to external stimuli depend on the context. In addition, there is no stimulus divorced from context. The influence of context is everywhere. It gives meaning and value to simple stimuli, stimuli, objects, events, situations, and is also perceived by other people in the environment. Situational factors greatly influence people's responses—whether the stimulus is a geometric figure, a personal quality, a legal argument, or a spinach. It's so common that it sometimes goes unnoticed. But in fact, it is difficult to imagine a world where perception is not determined by the situation. The main challenge is distinguishing which situational influences are significant and worth considering and which are minor. Associated with this property is the presence perceptual defense against a stimulus or event that poses a potential threat to a person in a given context.

Meaningfulness human perception is closely connected with his thinking, with language. The connection between thinking and perception is expressed, first of all, in consciously perceiving an object - this means highlighting it, mentally naming it, i.e. attributing it to a certain group, class, associating it with a certain word (category), carrying out a conscious search for the best interpretation of existing data and define (or redefine) the situation and yourself in this situation.

Process of reflection perceived information can be represented by a structural-logical diagram reflecting the logical sequence of the main stages: a) selection (selection) in the process of observation of a complex of stimuli from the flow of information and formation (grouping) of the object of perception; b) organization and identification of an object according to the found set of characteristics; c) categorization of the object and clarification of the correctness of assignment; d) the formation and interpretation of the final conclusion about what kind of object it is, with the attribution to it of not yet perceived properties characteristic of objects of the same class. Therefore, perception is largely an intellectual process, which can be broadly defined as follows. Process of perception- a complex interacting unity of selectivity, systematization and interpretation, aimed at understanding what is currently affecting us. In other words, process of perception– this is a complex interactive process consisting of several subprocesses (stages): 1) registration (observation); 2) selection (selectivity, selection); 3) organizations; 4) categorization, storage and interpretation of various stimuli in psychological experience into a meaningful and logically consistent picture of the world. The general diagram of the perception process is presented in Fig. 2.2.1. In the process of perception, information about the world around us, emanating from our sensory organs (sensations), turns into systematized skills. These skills and perceptual (or rather, cognitive) experience are the joint result of stimulation and the process of perception. The result of each stage of perception is significantly influenced by both external and internal factors. Let us consider in more detail the external factors influencing the selectivity of the perception process.

Rice. 2.2.1. Process of perception

External factors of perception.External factors influencing selectivity (selectivity) perception - characteristics of environmental stimuli that influence whether attention will be drawn to this stimulus and whether it will be noticed. Some examples of these external factors can be combined into principles of perception.

Size. The larger the externality, the more likely it is to be accepted.

Intensity. The greater the intensity of the external factor, the greater the likelihood that it will also be perceived (bright light, loud noise, etc.). In addition, even the language of writing a note from a boss to a subordinate can reflect the principle of intensity. A note that says, “Please come see me when you have time” does not convey the urgency of the matter, which would be clear from a note that says, “Come to my office immediately!”

Contrast. External factors that are in conflict with the environment or that diverge from people's expectations are more likely to be perceived. In addition, the contrast of objects with others or with their surroundings can influence how they are perceived. For example, sportscasters of average height look very short when interviewing basketball teams, but quite tall next to jockeys. The contrast effect occurs when similar figures are contrasted with each other.

Movement. A moving factor will be perceived with greater probability than a stationary one. Soldiers in battle clearly confirm this principle.

Repeatability. A repeated factor will be perceived much faster than a single one. Marketing managers use this principle to attract the attention of buyers. Advertising repeats the key idea and advertising itself can be presented many times for greater effectiveness.

Novelty and recognition. Either a familiar or a new factor in the environment can attract attention, and this depends on the circumstances. People quickly notice an elephant walking along the street (both novelty and size increase the likelihood of perception). Most likely, you will perceive the face of a close friend among a group of people walking towards you.

A set of these and other similar factors can be used to enhance the perceptual effect. They, in combination with some internal factors of a person, determine to what extent a particular stimulus will be perceived. For example, the media sometimes impose the importance of observing certain stimuli using these external perceptual factors.

Internal factors of perception. We have already noted that perception depends not only on the nature of the perceived stimulus (object), but also on the general content of the mental life of the subject himself, since a specific living person with his inherent personal characteristics perceives. These most important internal factors are perceptual expectations (attitude), self-concept, perceptual defense, knowledge, personal characteristics, emotional state, needs and motivation for activity, goals and objectives, life and professional experience.

Internal perceptual factors (especially experience) are important for the development of perceptual abilities and the development of perceptual attitudes. Perception setting is a perceptual expectation based on past experiences with the same or similar stimuli. In other words, people see, hear and even feel what they want to see and hear. An example of this is blind faith: “I spent many years consulting with various companies on packaging design issues. Optical image and visual support are very important for the consumer. For example, the tobacco industry conducted special studies among smokers loyal to one brand. They conducted a blind test with them, that is, they were asked to smoke cigarettes without naming their brand. And what do you think - only two percent of smokers “identified” their favorite taste. That is, if other cigarettes were put in the usual pack, the subjects would not even notice the substitution - that’s how they trust the packaging.” Therefore, much of what they “see” around them is the result of past experience and learning, developed stereotypes. A significant role in personal characteristics of learning and motivation is played by the desire for a multifaceted perception of events as such.

Needs and motivation. Our needs play an important role in perception. A hungry person is more sensitive to food than someone who has just eaten; a needy person is more likely to overestimate the value of money than a wealthier person. Evidence shows that when pictures of people in ambiguous social settings were shown to other people, they perceived different things in the same pictures. People with a strong need for achievement perceived the people in the pictures as successful in business or other professions; those with a strong need for power saw them as people with influence over others; and people who feel the need to belong to a certain society perceive them as people from society. Motivation plays an important role in determining what a person will notice. For example, a worker at a firm that has announced it will lay off thousands of employees will be more sensitive to hiring announcements than a worker at another firm that is not laying off its workforce.

Experience. Perception is highly dependent on previous experiences and what exactly those experiences taught. For example, imagine a real estate agent, an architect, and a manager approaching a tall building. These three people focus on different aspects of this building. The real estate agent may first note the general conditions in which the building is located, the surrounding area and those factors that may affect the value of the building and the ability to sell it profitably. The architect will first of all note the architectural style and materials that were used in the construction of the building. The manager may be interested in the functions of the building. Each of them paid attention to different aspects of the same stimulus because they had different professional training. Previous experience with a task influences our perception of its difficulty and feasibility. Successful experience increases confidence in your own abilities. Failure weakens self-confidence.

Self-concept. Self-determination every person, or Self-concept (Self-image), is developed in the process of interaction with other people. “I” works as a schema (I-schema), which determines how we process information about the world around us and about ourselves. The perceived world is grouped around the perception of oneself. Self-Relationship Effect suggests that we process information about ourselves better than any other type of information. Focus on yourself means directing one's attention to oneself as opposed to the outside world. Self-focus (on positive and negative memories), mood, external events, expectations of future successes and failures are interrelated. The self-concept is not fixed. We are aware of other possible selves that we could or, for example, are afraid of becoming. The self-concept changes with age and under the influence of situational factors (See sidebar “Development of the Social Self”). It could be

Interesting experience
The self has become a major topic in psychology on the grounds that it helps organize our social thinking and energizes our social behavior. But what influences our sense of "I"?
Culture. Individualistic Western cultures foster an independent, separate sense of self. Collectivist Asian and Third World cultures foster an interdependent, “socially connected” sense of self.
Personal experience. Self-efficacy arises from the experience of mastery. Successfully solving a task that requires a lot of effort gives rise to a sense of personal competence.
Other people's judgments. We evaluate ourselves partly by taking into account what others think of us. Children who are described as talented, efficient, or helpful tend to incorporate such ideas into their self-concepts and behavior.
The roles we play. When we first begin to take on a new role (university student, parent, salesperson, etc.), we may experience a feeling of awkwardness. Gradually, our sense of “I” absorbs what was previously perceived simply as playing a role in the theater of life. The game becomes reality.
Self-justification and self-perception. We sometimes feel uncomfortable if we have spoken or acted insincerely. Or if they came out in support of something that they really didn’t think much about. In such cases, we justify our actions by identifying with them. Moreover, by observing ourselves, we may discover that we now perceive ourselves as holding the views we expressed.
Social comparison. We always strive to realize how we differ from the people around us. As the only woman in a group of men, or as the only Canadian in a group of Europeans, we are aware of our uniqueness. Comparison with others also shapes our self-identification as rich or poor, witty or dull, tall or short, noble or mean.

not the real self, but it is the only self we know, and we use it as a basis for perception. For example, if we perceive ourselves as incompetent, then the world around us will be perceived as threatening. Therefore, we are unlikely to take risks and try to conquer our environment. If we perceive ourselves as knowledgeable, we will set high goals and achieve them. Evaluating yourself is known as self-esteem or self-respect. In general, high levels of self-esteem are more preferable than low levels of self-esteem, and levels of self-esteem can be enhanced by positive experiences. Self-efficacy denotes a person's assessment of his ability to complete a task, achieve a goal, or overcome an obstacle. A high degree of self-efficacy improves many activities, from sports to academics.

Personal characteristics. Personality traits have an interesting relationship with perception. They are formed partly under the influence of perception and, conversely, personality traits influence how we perceive the world. But most of all, their influence affects how a person perceives other people - the process of interpersonal perception, “people perception” or “social perception”. Personality traits affect the light in which people perceive other people. Optimists see things in a positive light, pessimists see things in a negative light. Between these two extremes are those who see things more or less accurately and objectively. Carl Rogers points out that people who have a realistic view of themselves can act effectively without paying much attention to protecting themselves from their mistakes. They are fully aware of their faults as well as their virtues.

Bruner and Postman, after conducting a series of experiments, formulated three mechanisms of perception selectivity.

Resonance principle– stimuli that are relevant to the needs and values of the individual are perceived more correctly and faster than those that do not correspond to them.

Protection principle– stimuli that oppose the subject’s expectations or carry potentially hostile information are recognized less well and are subject to greater distortion.

The principle of alertness or sensitivity– stimuli that threaten the integrity of the individual, that can lead to serious disturbances in mental functioning, are recognized faster than all others.

Associated with these mechanisms is the presence perceptual defense(blocking or refusing to recognize) against a stimulus or event in a context that is personally or morally unacceptable or threatening to him. People may learn to avoid perceiving a number of conflicting, threatening, or unacceptable aspects contained in a context, thereby creating blind spots (for example, in the perception of their organization, their family).

Forms and principles of organization of perception. How does a person organize the process of processing the information received about a particular situation into something integral and meaningful? Gestalt psychology answered this question by formulating laws of gestalt organization, – principles that determine the factors leading to specific (recognizable) forms of perceptual organization and therefore cognitive organization. The fundamental form of organization of perception is figure-ground, based on the principle of grouping stimuli into a recognizable structure, which is probably an innate property of humans.

Figure-ground – a fundamental form of organization of perception that determines the possibility of isolating a “figure” (dominant features) from the “background” (stimuli filling the environment). Figure-ground formation: a portion of the stimuli becomes salient as an object (figure) as opposed to a less salient background (ground). For example, words formed in black letters are a figure, and a white textbook page is a background. Another example: in a noisy cafeteria, we are able to carry on a meaningful conversation with colleagues because we are able to distinguish the voices and signs of these people (figures) from the signs and voices of other people (background). So, the whole scene is perceived, but we respond only to what is closest to us. If we responded to all stimuli, the result would be nonsense.

Constancy– this is a complex form of organization of perception, which consists in the tendency to perceive objects and phenomena using the same samples for a long time, which allows the individual to feel stability in a changing world. It is often positive in nature, but can also have negative aspects. For example, a tendency to perceive long-known patterns may lead to an inability to perceive unique things and detect changes in long-known objects.

Grouping. The fundamental principle of the organization of perception, manifested in the tendency to group a number of stimuli into a certain recognizable structure that has a certain internal uniformity. The grouping of incentives is carried out according to the following principles.

Proximity. Stimuli located nearby tend to be perceived together. Thus, if three people are standing next to each other, and the fourth is five meters away from them, then the first three will be perceived as a group of people, and the one standing at a distance will be perceived as an outsider.

Similarity (similarity).“A bird is recognized by its feather,” and stimuli that are similar in size, shape, color, or shape tend to be perceived together. Football players of the same team on the playing field must have the same uniform in order to immediately recognize “friend or foe.” Imagine two troops marching one after the other. If their uniforms have different colors, the squads appear to be two independent groups rather than one large group. Similarity and proximity can combine and lead to new organization of information.

Closedness (completeness, integrity, filling in gaps). Closedness reflects the tendency to complete a figure, so that it takes on a complete, complete form, sometimes even illusory. This ability allows stimuli to be perceived as a whole object, although some parts of the object remain invisible. Even small children see them, despite the knowledge that “they are not really there.” Illusory figures prove that our tendency to form images (even with minimal cues) is very strong. A person, having heard part of a statement or conversation, then, mentally completing it, can take it personally.

Integrity. Perception tends towards simplification and integrity. It is easier for us to see simple familiar continuous shapes or images and their combination than to look at a complex series of unfamiliar shapes.

Adjacency. Contiguity is the proximity of stimuli in time and space. Contiguity often determines perception when one event causes another. One psychologist demonstrated this principle to an audience in this way: he hit himself on the head with his hand, while simultaneously and imperceptibly hitting a wooden table with his other hand. The knocking coincided exactly with the movements of the visible hand. This led to the involuntary perception that his head was made of wood.

Common area. Stimuli identified within one zone tend to be perceived as a group. Perhaps the common area principle explains why we tend to mentally group together people from the same country, province, or geographic area.

Result of the perception process– image construction: images of perception as the “indicative basis of behavior” are more significant for attitude and behavior than the object of perception itself. Image of the situation- this is a generalized picture (individual vision) of a fragment (objects and phenomena of the external and internal organizational environment) of the real world, perceived by a person using the five senses: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell - formed and projected as a result of processing information about it. By using processes of categorization and interpretation the individual “defines” the situation in one way or another. The consequence of this “definition” of the situation is his behavior, which he builds in accordance with his “definition”. Human behavior is a series of adaptations to changing understandings of situations. Thus, a person does not simply react to a particular situation, but defines it (creates an image of the situation), while simultaneously “defining” himself in this situation. Idea cognitive style Kelly's point is that a person, acting in the world, is essentially a prisoner of his interpretations of this world: What is important to a person is not so much the objective fact itself as the meaning attached to it. It is in this sense that we can say that the individual himself actually creates and constructs the social world in which he lives. In the process of life, a person develops a whole system of constructs, with the help of which he compares phenomena and processes with each other according to his own hierarchy of significant characteristics prescribed by culture. At the same time, it is necessary to emphasize the collective nature of this process: by interacting, people create their environment. Thus, understanding the world is the result of the active joint activity of people entering into mutual relationships. Members of an organization, being in various relationships with other people and their actions, create (create) relationships that are characterized by various social constructions of reality that give meaning to everything that happens (or should happen) in the organization.

Considering the organization as a system (group), and perception and cognition as necessary functions of the system (through the system of thoughts and ideas of its members), we can say that the organization as a whole “perceives” and “thinks.” The question then becomes how the organization does this - how it collects and interprets information about the external environment and internal environment. According to the parallel information processing model, people and organizations process information using the same principles described in the psychology of social cognition. Information processing begins with concentration of attention, then it is encoded, memorized, information search, information selection and evaluation of the result obtained. This approach interprets the processing and structuring of knowledge as an attempt to create a more or less objective picture of the world, passed through the filter of cognitive mechanisms and structures of the cognizing subject, which determine the behavior of the latter.

2.3. Laws and effects of perception

Effects, “errors” and patterns of social perception. The most studied and richest in factual material is that area social perception(social perception), which is associated with a description of its main phenomena, effects, and manifestations. All these effects and phenomena are at the same time a kind of “errors” (a manifestation of inaccuracies in social perception), and the most important patterns, the causes of which are rooted in the fundamental characteristics of the psyche. A fairly complete description of these effects, important for managers, can be found in A.V. Karpov.

“Halo effect” (“halo effect”, “halo or horn effect”) is the most famous of all the “errors” of interpersonal perception. Its essence is that the general favorable impression (opinion) of a person is transferred to the assessment of his unknown traits, which are also perceived as positive. Conversely, a general negative impression also leads to a negative evaluation of those traits that are unknown. This effect increases with a decrease in general awareness of the object of perception; in this case, it itself serves as a kind of means of replenishing the lack of information about the object. This effect leads to the fact that information about a person is categorized in a certain way, namely, it is superimposed on the image stored in memory that was formed in advance. This image plays the role of a “halo” that prevents one from seeing the actual features of the perceived personality. At the same time, the “halo effect” can influence both positive and negative evaluations (“horns effect”). (“First I work for the record book, and then the record book works for me” – this is the student’s formulation of this effect.) However, often not everything depends on the person himself; the information that others receive about him even before direct contact is also of particular importance.

“Sequence effect” as “primacy effect” consists in a tendency to a strong overestimation of the first information about a person, in its fixation and high stability in the future in relation to other information received later. It is also called "familiarity effect" or "first impression". As research shows, this initial information is extremely important subjectively; it receives a subjective assessment disproportionate to its objective importance and is very difficult to correct in the future. This effect is based primarily on unconscious evaluation mechanisms. A number of studies have shown that in a significant proportion of cases this effect is by no means just an “error”, since it gives, although a rough, approximate, but still quite accurate result. An ill-wisher who wants to harm a person is in a hurry to report something discrediting about him to the new boss. Against such an installation background, it is difficult for a person to justify himself and prove something. And a lot of time will pass until the leader understands the situation and assesses who is who.

"Sequence effect" as "novelty effect" unlike the previous one, it does not refer to the perception of a stranger, but to the perception of an already familiar person. When it comes to close people, the situation is reversed: for some reason, the latest, new information becomes more reliable. Any unexpected action, non-standard act of a loved one forces one to draw a conclusion about the presence of certain personality traits that were not noticed earlier and which will further affect the development of the relationship. Newer information about the known turns out to be subjectively the most significant. This applies not only and not so much to information about the external characteristics of the subject, but also to his, for example, speech behavior. Therefore, there is a rule according to which the conversation should end with some effective phrase, since it is this that is best captured by the interlocutor and most of all influences his opinion and behavior.

The last two effects of the sequence are due to a common psychological mechanism - mechanism of stereotyping. All phenomena caused by it are sometimes separated into a separate group - the group "stereotyping effects".Stereotype– This is some stable image of a phenomenon or a person, which is used as a means, a kind of “shortcut”, a scheme for interaction. It arises on the basis of common ideas about the essence of certain phenomena that have developed in everyday life (or in professional activity). It also arises on the basis of limited past experience, as a result of the desire to draw conclusions on the basis of limited information. Very often, the effects of this group arise in relation to group or professional affiliation (“all accountants are pedants”), but often also on the basis of purely everyday ideas (“fat people are good-natured, thin people are bilious,” “all plumbers are drunkards”). Stereotyping, as a mechanism and reason for the group of effects that arises on its basis, cannot be assessed from the standpoint of “good or bad.” It is twofold: by simplifying the process of perception, a person unwittingly “pays” for this simplification with the probability of erroneous perception. Otherwise, stereotyping leads to prejudices. If a person's perception is based on past experiences, and the experience was negative, then any subsequent perceptions of members of the same group may be tinged with hostility, which harms people's learning and their interactions. Ethnic stereotypes are especially common when, based on limited information about individual representatives of ethnic groups, preconceived conclusions are drawn about the entire group.

Socrates also said: “Three things can be considered happiness: that you are not a wild animal, that you are a Greek and not a barbarian, and that you are a man and not a woman”... Almost two and a half millennia have passed, and the situation has changed little. The Institute of Sociology of the Russian Academy of Sciences conducted a number of interesting studies in 1997. To the question: “Why can’t women run businesses successfully?” respondents answered as follows: “simply” believe that women are not capable of doing business at all – 22%; sympathize with women, but believe that it is more difficult for them to receive support from officials, for example, to take out a loan from a bank - 22%; drew attention to the fact that for some reason it is more difficult for women to obtain an appropriate education - 12%; note the resistance of relatives, friends, and family to their doing business – 21%. What comments can there be here?

One of the relatively independent varieties of stereotyping are the so-called modeling errors. This is an image some model of a person, emerging on the basis of stereotypes and emerging before the beginning interpersonal interaction, based on preliminary information about it. Modeling errors arise on the basis of not entirely adequate pre-perceptual installation. It is not entirely adequate because it is formed under the influence of stereotyping. A particular type of modeling error, but important specifically for management activities, is a peculiar technocratic perception subordinates. The manager “models” the subordinate on the basis of his official and professional affiliation and builds the image as he should be, based on this affiliation, and not on the basis of the characteristics of the real person. This phenomenon is a particular manifestation of the general technocratic, manipulative style manuals. It is often a source of interpersonal conflicts in the “manager-subordinate” vertical. From this follows the well-known rule of humanistic management: one must see a person in a subordinate, and not a subordinate in a person; to lead not positions, but people.

The "role" effect. It is necessary to distinguish between the personal characteristics of the person himself and his behavior determined by role functions. A leader can be a very gentle person, nevertheless, trying to create an impression of toughness and demandingness among his subordinates, he may seem heartless and rude. However, the performance of role functions can actually have an impact on the individual (mastering a profession in psychology is often associated with the concept of “professional deformation”).

The effect of "presence". If a person has excellent skills in any activity, then in front of others he will cope with it even better than alone; if his actions are not honed to the point of automatism, then the presence of other people will lead to not so good results.

"Advance effect"- this is when non-existent virtues are attributed to a person, and then they are disappointed when faced with his behavior, which is inadequate to the positive image that has developed about him.

"The Leniency Effect." It consists of an unreasonably positive perception by the leader of his subordinates and exaggeration of their positive traits while underestimating the negative ones, in the opinion that they will “get better.” Its basis is the desire to protect oneself from possible conflicts that inevitably arise during an objective assessment of negative traits. This effect is more often observed among leaders of democratic and especially permissive styles. For leaders of an authoritarian style, it “turns around” and appears as the effect of hyper-demandingness, or prosecutor effect.

The effect of “physiognomic reduction” consists of hasty conclusions about the internal psychological characteristics of a person based on his external appearance. These stereotypes are sometimes based on outdated psychophysiological concepts (Kretschmer et al.) about the connection between the structure of facial and body features and character traits. According to A. A. Bodalev, out of 72 people he interviewed about how they assessed the personality traits of other people by their appearance, 9 answered that a square chin is a sign of willpower, a large forehead is a sign of intelligence; 3 subjects identified coarse hair with an unruly character; 14 considered fatness a sign of good nature; 2 people associated thick lips with sexuality; 5 respondents considered short stature to be a sign of authority; 5 out of the total believe that beauty is a sign of stupidity.

"Beauty Effect" manifests itself in the fact that outwardly more attractive people are regarded as more pleasant in general (more open, sociable, successful), while less attractive people are assigned a less enviable role. It is worth noting that beauty is still a subjective concept, the concept of it varies in different cultures, however, this does not prevent people of different nationalities from making mistakes when assessing the personality of others precisely because of their focus on the attractiveness of their interlocutor. However, a number of psychological studies have shown that almost every person seems likeable and attractive to someone.

"The Expectations Effect" or "Pygmalion Effect": what kind of feedback a person expects, this is what he receives as a result (if he expects the employee to be constrained and closed, he will receive this; he assumes lightness and simplicity - he will provoke the partner to exactly this line of behavior); our open and kind-hearted behavior is to some extent a guarantee of the same reaction from our employees.

The phenomenon designated as effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem. Initially, it is the other group (“They”) that has more pronounced qualitative certainty in perception than its own group (“We”). But in the future, the first is assessed worse and less accurately than the second (one’s own). This is one of the typical sources of behavior of a leader who sets “other” individuals and “other” groups as an example to his subordinates, but does not adequately assess the advantages of “his” group - “not seeing a prophet in his own country.” A kind of “mirror” version of this phenomenon is the opposite effect: polarization with a “plus” sign in the assessments of members of one’s own group (“We are overestimated”) and with a “minus” sign for members of the out-group (“They are underestimated”). This effect is based on a mechanism for strengthening the group’s self-identity, emphasizing its importance and value, and therefore one’s importance as its leader.

Such polarization is a special case and at the same time one of the reasons for a more general phenomenon, which is called the phenomenon of “in-group favoritism”. It consists of the tendency to favor in perception and value judgments members of one's own group as opposed to members of some other group (or groups). This phenomenon sets the “most favored nation” mode for interpersonal relationships and perceptions of members within a group compared to intergroup connections. In terms of the relationship between the leader of a group (organization) and his subordinates, he acquires additional specific features. Firstly, he can and most often becomes selective in relation to individual members of the group. Secondly, at the same time it hypertrophies, transforming into a known the phenomenon of protectionism, that is, it moves from the plane of perception to the plane of action.

The phenomenon of “presumption of reciprocity” (illusion of reciprocity) consists in a person’s stable tendency to perceive the attitude towards him from the people around him as similar to his own attitude towards them. The reason for the phenomenon of “presumption of reciprocity” is that it is precisely this – a similar, i.e., equal relationship – that is subjectively presented as the most fair. The assumption of reciprocity is a kind of starting point from which interpersonal relationships begin to be built. For a manager, it is at the same time a regulator – a restraining mechanism. It makes him remember that unfair assessments can cause boomerang effect from subordinates.

The phenomenon of “assumption of similarity” consists in the subject’s tendency to believe that other people significant to him perceive others in the same way as he does. He transfers his perception of other people onto his subordinates. Thus, a leader is inclined, as a rule, to believe that his subordinates’ perception of both other people and himself is exactly the same as his own perception. Moreover, he builds his behavior and relationships with subordinates in such a way as to cultivate and strengthen this “unity of perception and assessments.” In extreme terms, this phenomenon can also go beyond perception and transform into the phenomenon of imposition of opinions. Two more phenomena - "mirror image" and favoritism– have similar content and are as follows. Members of two groups (especially those in conflict) perceive the same personality traits as positive in members of their own group and as negative in members of the other group.

"Projection Effect". Projecting your own qualities onto people causes an attitude of expectation and corresponding behavior. This effect very often manifests itself in people’s inability to take another person’s point of view. D. Carnegie draws attention to developing the ability to look at what is happening through the eyes of another person, and not according to the usual scheme: “I wouldn’t do that.” Of course, a choleric person will not behave like a phlegmatic person, so you shouldn’t expect this from him. The “projection effect” is associated with the level of development of the reflexive mechanism. It is, of course, easier for a person to see what is familiar and understandable to him, that is, himself in another person. A classic example of projection is a situation where a manager believes that the needs of his subordinates are the same as his own.

A characteristic “error” of perception is the phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of something that did not happen. Any leader knows well that often what is more important is not what a person said or did, but what he did not say or do. In practice, this understanding is not always supported by actions due to this effect. Moreover, information “about what did not happen” is not only underestimated, but is often ignored as not occurring and therefore not taken into account at all, which very often leads to errors in management. Everyone knows the expression “silence is a sign of consent” as the simplest case of this phenomenon. In management, it is often quite complex and requires special understanding. The most important feature of professional competence and experience of a manager is a correct assessment of what could have happened, but did not happen, and why it did not happen.

2.4. Attribution

When the reasons for another person’s behavior are unknown, a means of explaining behavior (and a social phenomenon in general) is attribution, i.e., a kind of completion of information is carried out. Attribution is the process of perception by a “naive psychologist” of the causes of behavior and its results, allowing a person to give meaning to the environment. Introduced the term and researched causal attribution F. Haider. According to causal attribution A person's perception of the behavior of others is largely determined by what he believes to be the cause of that behavior. The causes of behavior are usually explained by individual (personal) characteristics or the situation in which the behavior was manifested, or a combination of both.

Dispositional (personal, internal, internal) attribution emphasizes certain aspects (abilities, skills, motives) of the individual, and situational (external, external) attribution emphasizes the influence of the external environment on behavior (being late for work is explained by snow drifts on the road). Thus, we evaluate the behavior of others based on our perceived motives and intentions. Heider's work provided the conceptual basis for a more general approach known as attribution theory. Modern theories of attribution, dealing with problems of social perception, actually try to explain (understand, know) how they attribute characteristics and qualities to other people. Act of attribution is the attribution or endowment of some characteristics (or traits, emotions, motives, etc.) of oneself or another person. The term represents not so much a formal theory as a general approach in social and personality psychology in which behavior is studied in the light of this concept. Using position Gestalt psychology that information acquired through an observer's past experience plays an important role in the processing of new data, attribution theories posit that the following sequence occurs in social situations: a person observes the behavior of another person, making a logical inference about that person's intentions based on perceived data, and then attributes to him some ulterior motives that are consistent with this behavior. There are many variations on this theme, including self-perception theory in which a person's self-image is examined within the framework of such a theoretical approach.

Fundamental attribution error– the tendency of people to ignore situational reasons for actions and their results in favor of dispositional (personal) ones. This error is not absolute (it is not universal, it does not always appear, not under all circumstances, it can be taught to recognize and eliminate) (Fig. 2.4.1). Conditions for fundamental attribution error to occur are:

"False Consent"- this is an overestimation of the typicality of one’s behavior (one’s feelings, beliefs, convictions), expressed in the fact that the observer considers his point of view to be the only correct (“normal”), which should be characteristic of all people, and any deviation from it is associated with the personality of the observed ( figure).

"Unequal Opportunities"– this is the failure to take into account the role position of the acting (observed) person. Each person plays many roles, and some of their roles make it easier to express themselves and bring out positive qualities. It is this mechanism that is activated during attribution in manager–subordinate situations.

“Ignoring the informational value of what did not happen.” Information about what “didn’t happen”—about what a person “didn’t do”—may be the basis for assessing behavior, but it is this information that is often omitted, since the observer superficially perceives only “what happened.”

“More confidence in facts than in judgments.” The first glance is always directed to a “more salient” fact - to the person (“figure”), and the situation (“background”) still needs to be determined. This is where the “figure-ground” perception focusing mechanism comes into play.

"The Ease of Constructing False Correlations." This phenomenon is the basis implicit theories of personality and consists in the fact that a naive observer arbitrarily connects any two personality traits as necessarily accompanying each other. Particularly often, an arbitrary combination of external traits and psychological properties is carried out, which speeds up and simplifies the attribution process (for example, all overweight people are kind, all short male managers are power-hungry, etc.).

Rice. 2.4.1. Fundamental attribution error

Some social norms in different cultures form a tendency towards a certain type of attribution (Western individualism - towards personal attribution, and Eastern collectivism - towards situational attribution).

Four types of job interviews with candidates. Biographical used to reconstruct facts not reflected in the summary, or to clarify those that are in doubt. For example, why the person changed jobs or what he did during the period not included in the resume. The value of this type of interview is to expand and clarify existing information. With the help of biographical questions, you can find out what a person is focused on - looking for new opportunities or high-quality long-term work.

Provocative, or a stressful interview helps to identify “slippery” moments. The interviewer notices something strange and asks the question point-blank: “Why are you lowering your eyes?” or “Why are you nervous now?” Everyone who gets a job, in addition to their declared intentions, also has hidden ones.

Perhaps a student wants to work during the holidays, and when school starts, she will quit. Some people like to get an education at the expense of their employers: they improved their qualifications here and left, studied there and left again. To find out what motivates those who are hired, they ask questions like: what will happen after you complete our training? But even a provocative interview must be conducted tactfully: not push a person to the wall, but carefully note in his words and gestures signs of lies, double messages or inconsistencies with what was said. However, some managers also resort to frankly harsh methods: they can splash water on a candidate or “accidentally” spill coffee on his suit to see how he reacts. Situational interview build on “life examples.” “The client is irritated and demands a manager. Your actions?". Or: “Where will you start in this position?” Depending on the solution proposed by the applicant, they conclude whether he has the necessary behavioral patterns, knows how to set goals, and is able to “resolve” problems. Such an interview is very effective when searching for a candidate for the position of line manager. It is better to replace the interview with the performer with professional testing: the secretary is given something to type or is asked to take a test on proficiency in standard office programs.

Criteria interview They are used mainly by Western companies, which have already developed a certain profile of requirements for employees. They need a very specific level of leadership, sociability and similar qualities, which is sometimes even expressed quantitatively. With the help of interviews, they check how well the candidate matches the desired profile. Here they often give tasks like “List your three strongest qualities and three weakest” or “Name the three strongest and three weakest qualities of a leader”, “Rate your analytical abilities on a 10-point scale.” Then everything the candidate said is evaluated.

Individual behavior is a function of many variables. Human behavior is a series of adaptations to changing understanding of a situation. A person does not simply react to this or that situation, but defines it (creates an image of the situation), simultaneously “defining” himself in this situation and then, on this basis, shows activity as a subject of activity. Perception is an important mediating cognitive process during which a person attaches special meaning to elements and phenomena of the environment. Perception as a cognitive socio-psychological process has the following basic properties: objectivity, structure, activity, apperception, contextuality and meaningfulness.

Process of perception- a complex interacting unity of selectivity, systematization and interpretation, aimed at understanding what is currently affecting us and building a meaningful and logically consistent picture of the world around us. External factors influencing selectivity of perception include: size, intensity, contrast, movement, repetition, novelty and recognition. The most important internal factors are: perceptual expectations (attitude), self-concept, perceptual defense, knowledge, personal characteristics, emotional state, needs and motivation for activity, goals and objectives, life and professional experience. Figure-ground and grouping are fundamental forms of perceptual organization. The grouping of stimuli is carried out according to the following principles: proximity, similarity (similarities), closedness (completeness, integrity, filling in gaps), integrity, contiguity, common area. In the process of categorization and interpretation, an image of perception is built, which, as an “indicative basis for behavior,” is more significant for attitude and behavior than the object of perception itself.

Social context plays an important role in understanding people in organizations. Of particular importance for social perception is attribution(how people explain the reasons for their own behavior and other people) and important “effects” (errors) of perception: stereotyping, “halos”, projections, etc. In the process of social cognition, people tend to ignore situational reasons for actions and their results in favor of dispositional (personal) ), i.e. they commit a fundamental attribution error.

Impression management– making efforts to form, manage and control other people’s impressions of oneself. Most impression management tactics fall into two categories: tactics to strengthen one’s own position And tactics to strengthen the interlocutor’s position, involving attempts to evoke positive feelings or reactions in another person.

Questions for Review and Discussion

1. What is the difference between the “halo effect” and stereotype in perception?

2. What stereotypes are associated with the perception of a person’s demographic characteristics? What consequences can this lead to?

3. Find an example of discrimination in the media. Analyze the situation and explain why it happened. Suggest ways to solve this problem.

4. Why is it important to understand the perception process and the factors influencing it in an organizational setting?

5. How do sensations differ from perception?

6. Give some examples of external factors that influence the selectivity of perception. Explain how the principle of perceptual constancy works.

7. What does the term “stereotype” mean? Why is it seen as a problem of the process of perception?

8. Explain the factors that determine how one person is perceived by another.

9. Comment on the statement “perception of reality is more important than reality itself” in an organizational context.

10. Why do some people judge other people better than others? How does our self-esteem affect our perception?

11. How differences between students and teachers may affect the assessment of written work and activity in class.

12. Some companies and agencies conduct public opinion polls among their own employees. Why are they interested in such surveys?

13. What perceptual error made by a manager could create additional problems in evaluating the performance of subordinates? In assessing a candidate when hiring?

14. Explain the fundamental attribution error. Give an example from personal experience or another source where an observer is capable of making such an error.

15. Describe the types of attribution that people use in their work.

16. A study of small business failures found that owners tended to blame economic downturns and intense competition, while lenders were more likely to blame failures on poor management. What attributional tendencies are manifested in this case? Why is there a difference in attribution? 17. Do you agree with the original thesis that people are information processes? If you agree with this statement, then why?

Literature

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2. Aronson E., Wilson T., Eickert R. Social Psychology. Psychological laws of human behavior in society. – St. Petersburg, 2002.

3. Boddy D., Payton R. Fundamentals of management / Transl. from English Ed. Yu. N. Kaptursky. – St. Petersburg, 1999.

4. Gibson J. L., Ivantsevich D. M., Donnelly D. H. Jr. Organizations: behavior, structure, processes. 8th ed. – M., 2000.

5. Karpov A.V. Psychology of management: Textbook. – M., 1999.

6. Maklakhov A. G. General psychology. – St. Petersburg, 2002.

7. Kuhn D. Basics of psychology. All the secrets of human behavior. – St. Petersburg, 2002.

8. Lutens F. Organizational behavior / Transl. from English 7th ed. – M., 1999.

9. Nordström K. A., Rodderstrale. Funky business. Capital dances to the tune of talent. – St. Petersburg, 2000.

10. Organizational behavior in tables and diagrams / Under scientific. Edited by G. R. Latfullin, O. N. Gromova. – M., 2002.

11. Parygin B. D. Social Psychology. Problems of methodology, history and theory. – St. Petersburg, 1999.

12. Practical psychology for economists and managers: A textbook for university students / Ed. M.K. Tutushkina. – St. Petersburg, 2002.

13. Psychology of social situations / Comp. and general editing by N.V. Grishina. – St. Petersburg, 2001.

14. Reber A. Large explanatory psychological dictionary. T. 1, 2 / Per. from English E. Yu. Chebotareva. – M., 2001.

15. Ross L., Nisbett R. Person and situation. Lessons in social psychology. – M., 1999.

16. Social psychology: key ideas / R. Baron, D. Byrne, B. Johnson. – 4th ed. – St. Petersburg, 2003.

17. RobbinsS. Essentials of organizational behavior. – Prentice Hall, 1992.

18. Pettinger R. Introduction to organizational behavior. – Mac-Millan Press ltd., 1996.

19. Organ D.W., Batemman T.S. Organizational behavior. 4 th ed. – Richard D. Irwin, 1991.

20. HellriegelDon, Slocum J.W., Woodman R.W. Organizational behavior. – West Publishing Company, 1992.

“Brand image” means holistic image of a product, brand or service (see Kotler F., “Fundamentals of Marketing”, Chapter 2., Fig. 10 “Product Positioning Schemes and Consumer Preferences” - the text under the picture directly states that this is a reflection of the subjective perception of brands, rather than a reflection of objective characteristics).

The peculiarity of this concept is that it reflects, first of all, INTEGRITY OF PERCEPTION and the possibility of direct comparison of objects that cannot be compared using traditional methods due to differences in the criteria applied to objects by consumers. The need to distinguish “brand image” as opposed to “brand characteristics” was caused by the fact that in the mid-50s, experts drew attention to the fact that the motivation for purchases made by consumers has the following characteristics:

When choosing a product/brand, consumers use criteria not significant for a given product from the manufacturer’s point of view (in terms of the actual technical or functional characteristics of the product).
Consumers often misunderstood or misinterpreted certain arguments of advertisers and after using the product in such cases they believe that they were deceived.
Consumers can insist prefer a product whose objective qualities worse than competitors.

As a result of the research, data was obtained that allowed us to assert that consumers make their choices based on complete image (“gestalt”) of a product formed in them as a result of the interaction of their ideas about significant qualities for a given product group, information from advertising, communication with other people, price, availability of the product, etc.

It turned out that the subjective importance of various characteristics reported by respondents in research does not coincide with either the frequency of their use or the results of direct ranking (when the respondent directly indicates that characteristic X is more important than characteristic Y). All these and some other methodological and technical problems were solved by the use of subjective semantics methods, borrowed by marketers from psychiatric and psychological practice (these methods were developed in their modern form by the Ch. Osgooda group in the 50s, and were adapted in the late 70s in the USSR; in the second European edition of F. Kotler in Russian, 1999, there is a separate section “Map of Perception”).

However, in modern Russian marketing practice, the correct use of psychosemantic methods to solve problems of marketing and mass communication is carried out by two scientific teams, one advertising agency, and mention of such methods is contained in the advertising materials of one research company.

2. Modern Russian practice of researching “brand image”: technical problems and incorrect methods

When researching “brand image,” a marketer faces the following problems:

As a result of researching the “brand image”, it is necessary to obtain a description of your own and competing brands that would allow them to be compared according to known criteria. But when discussing different brands belonging to the same group, consumers often use different criteria (for example, one brand is “beautiful” and another is “reliable”) - then the problem arises of comparing objects described by consumers with different (often weakly intersecting) sets criteria.
In most product groups in Russia there are up to several dozen brands (in our practice, there was a study that analyzed the position of almost 70 brands). Limiting the number of brands under study based on any formal criteria (by “price group”, personal opinion of the brand manager, etc.) can lead to a lack of meaningful information and errors in making key business decisions. It is all the more dangerous to conduct research only regarding your brand, choosing, for example, from a certain set of packaging designs the best one - perhaps this design is really the best among the presented set, but this does not mean at all that it is better than the designs of those packaging designs among which the consumer makes a choice.
Consumers use 20-30 criteria to describe brands, the significance of which depends on the stage of the brand’s life cycle and “drifts” under the influence of various social processes. The inclusion of certain criteria in the “image” of different brands also varies greatly and is of a diagnostic nature.

Taking into account the above problems, when obtaining answers to questions like: “How do consumers perceive my brand?”, “Are there brands that consumers perceive better than mine? Why?”, “How can I make my brand perceived better? Which positioning should I choose?”, the marketer is faced with the need to conduct a study in which a “standard respondent” must answer several hundred questions (for example, evaluate 20 brands according to 25 criteria, a total of 20x25 = 500 questions). An analysis of the studies known to us in which exactly this approach was applied demonstrated a very expected result: very quickly, on average, starting from the fourth to sixth brand, respondents begin to sabotage the research, which is manifested in a decrease in the variability of the choice of proposed ratings, a shift in choice to the first and last characteristics list positions, etc. The results obtained in this way, in fact, are not subject to any adequate interpretation and cannot be used practically.

The results obtained using the widespread “softened” version of such a study, in which there was a smaller number of brands and the method of “selecting an important and/or specific characteristic” was used, we will consider below in more detail in comparison with the results of the “perceptual map” analysis, but if mass surveys Even though outwardly they look like a possible method of researching “brand image,” then the use of focus groups for the same purposes is generally unacceptable.

The inability to use focus groups to diagnose “brand image”

The incorrect use and impossibility of correctly diagnosing the “brand image” during a focus group stems from the technical and content limitations of the method:

During a focus group discussion, there are known technical limitations to making comparisons and evaluations between different brands. Traditionally, this number is limited by the capacity of a person's RAM, i.e. the well-known rule “seven plus or minus two” and equals, at its maximum, nine (for respondents with an average and low level of education, even less). In the case of discussing a larger number of brands, one way or another, they are divided into subgroups and, as a result, different criteria are used for comparison in subgroups and it is impossible to compare brands from different subgroups. Considering that many product classes contain dozens of brands, the use of focus groups becomes impossible, if only for this reason.
“Brand image” by its definition is “holistic” and therefore very specific to the individual and society. But “if a simple, straightforward, consistent answer emerges in a focus group study, that The answer is often incomplete, or it is the response to the wrong questions" - paragraph one of 25 Reasons To Use A Professional Qualitative Researcher, QRCA). That is, the focus group cannot answer the diagnostic questions of the “brand image” in a meaningful way.

These limitations and problems of diagnosing “brand images” are not sincerely realized by some researchers, and a minority are no less sincerely hushed up, although the informative and technological methods themselves have long been described and are included in the mandatory set of research methods studied at the faculties of psychology and sociology.

3. Diagnosis of the “brand image”: how to do it correctly

Diagnosis of the “brand image” should be carried out using the method of experimental psychological research based on the use of one or another version of the semantic differential.

The advantages of these methods are:

Unlimited number of objects (brands, advertising materials, etc.) among which comparison is made.
The ability to include new brands in the study and test variants of advertising materials as they are created for a relatively long time (several months).
Semantic differential or multidimensional scaling methods also make it possible to compare objects that have different sets of significant features in cases where conventional formal comparison methods cannot be applied. It becomes possible to formalize and study relationships in the subjective world of goods belonging to different product groups (for example, comparing chocolates, cars and clothes).
The influence of the researcher (moderator, interviewer) on respondents is minimized.
Also, to participate in these studies there is no need to gather respondents at a certain time in a certain place, as for a focus group.

The methods of semantic analysis themselves are built on the principle that the entire set of characteristics that people use to describe something can be reduced to a certain small number of factors (usually 2-4), which are subjective criteria for comparing objects. These factors can be identified using mathematical procedures (factor analysis), after which it becomes possible to compare different objects, regardless of what characteristics respondents use to describe these objects.

For example, despite the many words that can be used to characterize a particular person (about 4500 in English, about 2100 in Russian), people are actually compared in the three-dimensional space of qualities “Evaluation - Emotional strength - Activity”. When comparing different products, factors that can be interpreted as “Quality”, “Price”, “Famity”, “Reliability”, etc. are most often identified. (the set and hierarchy of factors are different for each product group).

The main stages of diagnosing the “brand image”.

When conducting “brand image” research, at the first stage, using a small number (30-40) of personal interviews, open-ended questions identify consumer criteria used to describe a specific product group. During the interview, the interviewer records all the characteristics that the respondent uses, and precisely in the respondent’s terminology, without interpreting it - this makes it possible to determine the key vocabulary of target consumers and use it both when compiling questionnaires for research and to create communication materials.

For various products, consumers usually use 10-20 criteria (less for medicines and food products, more for complex technical products). When compiling lists of criteria, the most important thing is to use the criteria of consumers, not producers. This is due to the fact that consumers use criteria for the “effects” or “characteristics” of products (for example, for televisions - “good image”, “beautiful design”), and manufacturers use criteria for “composition” (for example, “high-aperture gun”). These differences are reflected in common metaphors like “People don’t buy drills, they buy holes in the wall.”

At the second stage, the characteristics/criteria mentioned by consumers more often than others are converted into one or another type of scale (usually from -3 to +3) and respondents (naturally, different than in the first stage) are asked to evaluate the tested object according to each criterion.

Technically, each respondent can evaluate from 1 to 6 tested objects in one interview (this depends on the product group, length of the questionnaire, etc.). This research method is also convenient because, due to the processing methods used, there is no need for each respondent to evaluate the entire variety of objects (brands, advertising materials, etc.) that the researcher included in the study. With such a “distributed” interview, it is necessary to observe the randomness of presenting stimuli to different respondents (to exclude the “neighbor influence”) and strict quotas when forming a sample, but there is no need for a long and/or multiple interview. For one test object, it is necessary to obtain responses from 40 to 100 respondents, depending on the accuracy of determining the target group and its size.

As a result of factor analysis of the ratings given by respondents for each criterion, these criteria are grouped into several factors, with the help of which the so-called “brand maps” are obtained, characterizing the subjective perception of various brands (see Diagram 1). Using such a map, you can describe the “brand image” and compare it with other brands, with the ideal brand, evaluate its packaging, advertising materials, develop recommendations regarding positioning, etc.

Diagram 1. 3-dimensional map of six brands.
A relatively higher score for all factors of brand 2 and a low score for factors X and Y of brand 3 are noticeable.

Using special mathematical methods, it is possible to answer questions regarding the effect of “cannibalization” of brands - when one of the products under the “umbrella” brand begins to suppress sales of other products under this brand; and regarding the “vampirism” effect of brands - when a trade name begins to be perceived as a designation for the entire product group.

An example of the effect of brand cannibalization: the evaluation of different products under the same brand. Technically, the balls should have been equal in size, but due to the cannibalization effect of “product 4” and “product 2” of the brand, “products 1 and 3” could not take a place in the market for a long time.

An example of the brand “vampire” effect: the balls representing different brands were supposed to be the same size, but at the time of the study, three brands (the group in the center of the bottom of the graph) were generally poorly distinguishable by consumers, and the group had a “vampire” that represented for consumers almost the entire product group (vampire brands are, for example, Xerox, Pampers).

By constructing a brand map, you can also pretest advertising materials. The respondent is asked to evaluate the advertising material according to the same criteria that formed the basis of the questionnaire for assessing the “brand image”, and after the survey, this advertising material becomes a point on the map. Analysis of its position relative to the position of the brand itself (packaging), the ideal brand, as well as competing brands helps to choose the advertising material that creates the perception of the brand necessary for the advertiser, i.e. is located at the “given” place on the “stamp image” map.

To organize adequate communication with the consumer, in addition to analyzing the “brand image,” an analysis of the “consumer image” is necessary. There are known situations when, with a high assessment of a product, the consumer avoids buying it or puts forward a false motivation for refusing to purchase due to the fact that this product/brand, in his opinion, is good, but is not intended for him - “other people use it , not like me." In the literature, this effect is described as “avoiding identification with the consumer’s image” (see F. Kotler, Chapter 3, Box 6: “Why were consumers initially reluctant to buy instant coffee?”).

To study the “consumer image”, the same semantic scaling techniques are used as for the study of “brand image”, using appropriate criteria (usually a list of general psychological characteristics of a person is used).

Thus, the results of the study of “brand image” using diagnostic methods of subjective semantics make it possible to evaluate the perception of the brand relative to competitors by potential and actual consumers, the structure of the emergence of preference, and also identify the dynamics of the development of other brands. The results of the study of the “consumer image” make it possible to assess the adequacy of the communication strategy used (message style, advertising design, etc.), as well as to carry out its targeted and conscious correction.

An example of a comparison of the results obtained when using the “perceptual map” method and the “selection of the most important characteristics” method.

Let us consider the results obtained using various research methods. The baseline study was a study in which respondents were sequentially asked to 1) indicate no more than five most important product characteristics; 2) describe the brand that they consider the best. As can be seen from Table 1, the frequency of selection of the “most important” characteristics and the characteristics of the “best brand” is different, which is somewhat strange from the standpoint of formal logic.

Table 1. Probability of selecting characteristics depending on the task.

Criteria for a product/brand in a given product group	Probability of selecting a criterion as one of the five most important for a given product group	Probability of choosing a criterion as a characteristic of the best (ideal) brand in a given product group	The ratio of the probability of choosing a given criterion as the “most important characteristic” for a product of a given product group and the probability of choosing the “best” brand in a given product group as a characteristic

A similar problem arises when trying to compare user ratings of multiple brands. As you can see from the graph below, the likelihood of choosing one or another characteristic in relation to a particular brand is much less likely than choosing the “most important” or “best” characteristics.

Comparing several brands with this technology also causes many problems: purely visually the best Brand6, as well as positions “2” and “3”, but the level of sales did not reflect such positive assessments either before or after the study (usually changes in the “brand image” are ahead market fate: image suffers before sales; and for new brands, the rate of growth can be predicted depending on the attractiveness of its image to consumers).

It is believed that the use of factor analysis makes it possible to identify factors that are hidden from direct observation, but that explain several primary variables. An attempt to conduct a factor analysis of data collected using the “characteristic selection” method led to an uninteresting result, since the first two factors described only 18% of the variance.

		% total Variance

As can be seen from the map above, Brand6 is the leader in the first factor, and the severity of the characteristic in the first factor, with a traditional approach to the interpretation of such data, would allow us to assert the leading position of the brand. The problem was again the lack of external validity of these results.

Conducting research using the multidimensional scaling method allowed us to obtain a more informative solution. First of all, the first two factors, obtained even without improving the model, already described 46% of the variance (in total, significant factors described about 2/3 of the variance). More importantly, the results had much greater external validity: positions 4 and 5 were actively advertised and competing brands, and brand 1 was in third position. Brands 2 and 6 ranked last in terms of popularity and use, and brand 3 was widely known and mythologized for historical reasons, but was practically not represented on the market.

Tatiana Adasenko
Problems of development of visual-spatial perception in general pedagogy

Currently, there is a fairly large number of psychological pedagogical and scientific and methodological research dedicated to the problem of formation and development of visual spatial representations of children. IN pedagogy and psychology, a wealth of information has been accumulated about visually-spatial representations and their patterns development, which serves as the basis for developing methods for forming and development spatial representations.

Visual perception is a complex systemic psychophysiological process, including various operations: perception, coding and analysis of the properties of an object, its multimodal convergence, identification (recognition, assessment of its significance, decision-making in accordance with the motive and purpose of perceptual activity. Perception carried out by integrating the processes of attention, memory, general organization of activities, etc., but also a complex multi-component structure.

Perception carried out through the interaction of sensory processes of attention, memory, general organization of activities. Initial stage of formation visual perception consists of detecting an object (attention, distinguishing and highlighting its informative features. Based on the complex perceived features are integrated into a holistic perceptual image. Next comes comparison - correlation perceived images with perceptual and verbal standards stored in memory. Assessing the degree of agreement between the image and memory standards allows for categorization, that is, making a decision about the class to which the object belongs.

System operation visual perception reflected in such components as visuospatial perception, noise immunity, constancy, visual-motor integration, providing an adequate reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

Visual perception is the basis of the child’s cognitive activity, guides and regulates his behavior. Formation visual perception- one of the main tasks of preschool education; on its basis, basic school writing and reading skills are formed. The effectiveness of these processes directly depends on the formation visuospatial, motor skills, visual search, which allow children to visually distinguish the desired one among graphic forms, accurately copy text, and be able to operate with spatial concepts. Visual perception is one of the sensitive and integrative assessment indicators child development.

Immaturity visual perception in general and its individual components creates specific Problems in a child’s life. It is shown that the speed of writing depends on the degree of formation visual-motor integration, processing visual information including memory. With a deficit visual perception associated with reading difficulties. There is also evidence that the lack of effectiveness visually-spatial processing determines language difficulties that may be associated with deficits visual attention.

Implementation visual perception as a systemic act is carried out with the participation of various structures of the brain, each of which makes its own contribution to the construction of active perceptual activity, including attention, recognition, working memory, reference comparison of stimuli, assigning them to a certain category, etc. In the process of individual brain structure development involved in the act perception, mature non-simultaneously and reach a certain level of maturity, characteristic of adults, at different stages of ontogenesis. A consequence of this heterochrony development brain structures is the specificity of the functioning of the system perception at different age periods. Intensive maturation of cortical zones and intracortical connections at the age of 5-7 years allows us to consider this period as sensitive for improving mechanisms visual perception. In older preschool age, different dynamics of the maturation of components can be characterized visual-spatial perception of children. At the age of 5-6 years, the most important pace should be highlighted in children development of all components of visual-spatial perception, in the period of 6-7 years there is a significant increase in indicators visual development-motor activity and orientation in space.

Visually-spatial analysis is a special higher manifestation of the analytical-synthetic activity of the brain, which includes determining the shape, size, location and movement of objects relative to each other, as well as analyzing the position of one’s own body relative to surrounding objects, which is united by the concept "unconscious body schema". Body schema is seen in this context as a biological, psychological and social construct of personality. It is a dynamic-historical formation consisting of tactile, visual, thermal and pain sensations, as well as impulses from the vestibular apparatus, skeletal muscles and internal organs. At the same time, a close connection is formed with instinctive needs, as well as with interpersonal experience in the social sphere. Therefore, there is a violation of the body diagram (spatial perception) in addition to intellectual impairment personality development, changes in his emotional sphere, manifests itself in violations of the individual’s relationship with himself, with other persons and with the world around him as a whole. According to the concept of W. Schilder “social relationships are relationships between body images”. In a number of studies by L. S. Tsvetkova devoted to the study of normal developing children, it is noted that the most elementary forms of orientation in space arise already in infancy. The genesis of these forms is closely related to development the child has complex optical-vestibular-kinesthetic connections. The child can perceive an object in a certain place in space only under the condition of repeated convergence of the axes of the eyes on the object. A child, in the words of Sechenov I.M., "learns to look", distinguish spatial relationships between visible objects as his individual experience accumulates.

Thus, visual perception is a complex systemic psychophysiological process that has a significant impact on psychophysiological child development.

Publications on the topic:

The influence of the development of fine and gross motor skills on the active speech of children of early preschool age Generalization of teaching experience

The technology for developing and making management decisions is a set of sequentially repeated actions consisting of individual stages, procedures, and operations.

Management specialists offer various schemes for the decision development process, differing in the degree of detail of individual procedures and operations. Recommended sequences of actions may include up to several dozen operations and procedures, but this is not a dogma. Due to the wide variety of situations and solutions, the complexity of the task, information certainty, and the urgency of development, in practice, managers do not always adhere to these actions. Let's consider a simplified sequence of actions when developing a management decision using the example of a diagram containing only the main stages.

The goal of an organization, as a rule, is achieved not by a single decision, but by a sequence of interconnected individual stages, each of which gradually brings the decision closer to achieving the goal. Thus, a decision is not a one-time act, but the result of a process that develops over time and has a cyclical structure.

Let us consider the content of the main procedures of the management decision-making process.

Analysis of the situation. For the need for a management decision to arise, a signal is needed about an external or internal influence that has caused or is capable of causing a deviation from the given mode of operation of the system. Analyzing a situation requires collecting and processing information. This stage performs the function of the organization’s perception of the external and internal environment. Data on the state of environmental factors and the state of affairs in the organization are received by managers and specialists who classify, analyze information and compare the actual values of controlled parameters with planned or predicted ones, which in turn allows them to identify problems that should be solved.

Problem identification. A problem is usually understood as a discrepancy between the desired and actual state of a controlled object. At the time of their occurrence, problems are often poorly structured, i.e. do not contain obvious goals and ways to achieve them. External manifestations of a problem allow us to define it only in general terms, while determining the underlying causes that caused it requires serious analysis and study.

In addition, all elements and work in an organization are interconnected and the solution to one problem may cause others to arise. Therefore, when making a decision, you should strive to ensure that the number of additional problems that arise again is minimal.

At this stage, logical tools are usually used using various methods (analysis, synthesis, comparisons, induction, deduction, analogy, generalization, abstraction) and the intuition of developers.

Defining Selection Criteria. Before considering possible options for solving the problem that has arisen, it is necessary to determine the indicators by which alternatives will be compared, the best one will be selected, and subsequently an assessment of the degree to which the goal has been achieved.

It is desirable that the criterion has a quantitative expression, most fully reflects the results of the decision, and is simple and specific, for example, price, performance, operating costs, ergonomics, etc. However, it is often necessary to use qualitative criteria - for example, the quality of employees, the authority of the manager, the quality of products.

An incorrectly chosen criterion can lead to erroneous conclusions and disorganization in work, so it is necessary to take into account some recommendations:

the criterion can be one or several indicators. However, particular criteria selected for individual subsystems of the enterprise must be linked to system-wide ones, reflecting the interests of the enterprise as a whole;
the criteria can be not only the value of the indicators, but also the boundaries beyond which the increase in efficiency is either insignificant or associated with significant difficulties;
if the number of criteria is large enough, they should be grouped and the main one should be selected from the more important group.

Work on choosing a criterion is also usually carried out at the level of logical reasoning and intuition.

Development of alternatives. Ideally, it is desirable to identify all possible alternative ways to solve a problem, but in practice, the manager does not (and cannot have) such reserves of knowledge and time to formulate and evaluate every possible alternative. Finding an optimal solution is very difficult, takes a lot of time and money, so usually they find not the optimal, but a fairly acceptable option that allows them to solve the problem and helps to cut off previously unsuitable alternatives.

When forming a set of options, it is necessary to take into account the experience of solving similar problems in the past, but one should not limit oneself to this in the interests of finding new, more rational ways to solve problems. Brainstorming about the problem and generating alternatives can be helpful.

From the mass of possible ones, at the level of logic and intuition, from three to seven options are selected, the reality of which there is no doubt. A larger number of solution options significantly complicates calculations to assess their effectiveness.

Choosing the best alternative. At this stage, the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative are compared and the likely results of their implementation are analyzed. When comparing solution options, the selection criteria established at the third stage are used. With their help, the best alternative is selected.

Since the choice is most often made on the basis of several criteria, it is in the nature of a compromise. In addition, when assessing possible solution options, the manager actually deals with predictive estimates of the values being compared, and they are always probabilistic. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the risk factor, i.e. determine the probability of each alternative being realized. Taking into account the risk factor leads to a revision of the very concept of the best solution: it is not the option that maximizes or minimizes a certain indicator, but the one that ensures its achievement with the highest degree of probability.

Registration and approval of the decision. In modern management systems, as a result of the division of labor, a situation has arisen where the preparation and development of a decision is carried out by some employees of the organization, accepted or approved by others, and implemented by others. In such conditions, in order for the solution to be implemented, joint actions of all members of the organization are necessary. Therefore, in group decision-making processes, the coordination stage plays a very significant role.

Practice shows that the likelihood of quick and effective implementation increases significantly when performers have the opportunity to express their opinion on the decision being made, make suggestions, comments, etc. Therefore, the best way to agree on a decision is to involve employees in the process of making it. Of course, there are situations when this is impossible and the manager is forced to make a decision alone, without resorting to discussions and approvals, but we must remember that systematically ignoring the opinions of subordinates leads to an authoritarian leadership style. In addition, the current rules may provide for approval of the decision by a superior manager or organization.

When making a decision, you should not describe all the work in detail. It should define only the basic methods that determine the final result. The choice of methods for performing work to obtain intermediate results is the prerogative of managers who ensure the implementation of the decision.

The formalized decision must establish the divisions, employees and involved organizations that will be involved in the implementation of the decision, as well as the deadlines and those responsible for each block of work.

Implementation management. To get a real effect, the decision made must be implemented.

To successfully implement a solution, it is first necessary to determine a set of works and resources and distribute them among performers and deadlines. If the decisions involved are large enough, this may require developing a program to implement the solution. It is advisable to provide areas for monitoring the effectiveness of the implementation of the solution in the program. During the implementation of the plan, the manager must monitor how the decision is being implemented, provide assistance if necessary and make certain adjustments.

Monitoring and evaluation of results. After the decision is finally put into effect, it is necessary to verify whether it is justified. This purpose is served by the control stage, which performs a feedback function in this process. At this stage, the consequences of a decision are measured and assessed or the actual results are compared with those that were planned to be obtained.

As already mentioned, the solution is always temporary. The main task of control is to promptly identify a decrease in the effectiveness of a decision and the need to adjust it or make a new decision. In addition, the implementation of this stage is a source of accumulation and systematization of experience in decision making. The problem of monitoring management decisions is especially relevant for large bureaucratic organizations. Without a rationally organized system for monitoring the implementation of decisions, they may remain “on paper” and not give the expected effect.

The procedure for developing and making decisions analyzed above, which can be characterized as top-down, “top-down,” is characteristic of the so-called Western management model. The Japanese management model differs in a number of characteristics from the one considered. It is characterized by an upward, “bottom-up” movement of an idea, which usually originates in the lower or middle level of management, is carefully coordinated with all interested departments, first at their own, then at higher levels, and finally approved by senior management.

The advantages of the Japanese management model include the following:

Since the group method of decision-making is used, the decisions made are more justified and thoughtful, and all aspects of the problem being solved are thoroughly discussed. The form of process organization promotes the use of collegial methods for analyzing decisions, which improve their quality and stimulate the emergence of new alternatives.
Work on coordinating and organizing the implementation of the solution is carried out at the preliminary stage, which ensures fast and effective implementation of solutions.

However, this procedure also has disadvantages. In particular, this system makes planning, especially strategic planning, difficult. Another drawback is that the excessively compromising nature of the decisions made can hinder the development of the organization. In addition, in an unstable environment, a multi-stage development system does not ensure rapid decision-making.

Problems of development of visual-spatial perception in general pedagogy. Basic units of perception of an organization by an individual Questions for repetition and discussion

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