Nicaragua is a unitary state. Administrative division is 15 departments and 2 autonomous regions, created in 1987 for Indians on the Atlantic coast.

The current Constitution was adopted in 1986 (in force since January 1987) and is the ninth in the history of the country. Significant amendments were made to it in 1995. The form of government of Nicaragua is a presidential republic. The political regime is democratic.

Legislative power belongs to the unicameral National Assembly (93 deputies), elected by direct universal elections using a system of proportional representation for a period of 5 years.

The head of state and government is the President, elected by universal, equal, direct and secret ballot for a term of 5 years without the right of re-election. The Vice President is elected in the same way and for the same term. The President of the Republic is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and national security agencies.

Executive power is exercised by the President of the country, who appoints and dismisses ministers and presides over meetings of the Council of Ministers.

From independence in 1826 until 1979, when a popular revolution ended the authoritarian rule of the Somoza dynasty, the country underwent 15 constitutions. Throughout this time, political life was determined by rivalries between certain factions of the military elite, and for much of the 20th century There were dictatorial regimes in the country. In 1987, the constitution adopted by the elected legislature back in 1976 came into force.

Administratively, the country is divided into departments and municipal districts, and special territories are also allocated. District heads are appointed by the central government, and municipal authorities are elected by the population on the basis of direct voting for a period of 6 years. The Constitution provides for cultural and administrative autonomy for the Indian and black population, zones compact residence of which are allocated to special areas.

The main political party in Nicaragua until 1989 was the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), which fought for almost 20 years against the dictatorial regime of Somoza and defeated him in 1979. The Sandinista Front represented a wide range of left-wing political views, from populist authoritarian rule to Cuban model to Catholics - adherents of the so-called “theology of liberation”. The FSLN program proclaims broad social reforms aimed at creating a society of social justice and equality, pluralism in politics, democracy, a mixed economy and, above all, the fight against the dominance of the United States. The FSLN won a decisive victory in the elections on November 4, 1984, when its leader was elected president, receiving two-thirds of all votes, and almost the same percentage of seats was won by front candidates in parliament.

In June 1989, the Opposition National Union (UNO) was created to oppose the FSLN in the 1990 elections. It is a coalition of 14 parties, including Marxists, Christian Democrats, various Indian groups and representatives of the business community. Violeta Barrios was nominated as the UNF candidate for the presidency. de Chamorro, owner of the main opposition newspaper Prensa and widow of the leader of the anti-Somos movement Pedro Joaquín Chamorro, who was assassinated in 1978. She received 55% of the votes, while Daniel Ortega received 40%. Seats in the National Assembly were distributed approximately the same way. The YPG emphasized that his victory in the elections will help end the armed confrontation and economic sanctions from the United States.

The main political parties following the November 2006 elections are:

Sandinista National Liberation Front - left, 38 seats in parliament;

Liberal Constitutional Party - centrist, 25 seats;

Nicaraguan Democratic Bloc - centrist, 15 seats;

Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance – centrist, 6 seats;

Sandinista Renewal Movement – ​​left, 3 seats.

There are also more than 15 legal parties not represented in parliament.

Let us briefly look at the history of the Sandinista National Liberation Front. The Sandinista National Liberation Front is a left-wing political party in Nicaragua. The name “Sandinistas” comes from the name of the Nicaraguan revolutionary of the 1920-30s, Augusto Cesar Sandino.

After the unsuccessful elections in February 1990 (in which the FSLN received 40.8% of the vote), the Sandinistas were in opposition for almost a decade and a half, being the largest party in parliament and opposing the government’s neoliberal strategy. In the presidential elections, the FSLN candidate was invariably Daniel Ortega, but In each case, he was inferior to a single candidate from the “right” political parties. In 2006, the “right” were unable to nominate a single candidate, which significantly affected the balance of power. Ortega won the elections with 38.07% of the votes. His closest competitor, Eduardo Montealegre from The Nicaraguan Liberal Alliance scored 29%.

The Liberal Constitutional Party (Partido Liberal Constitucionalista, PLC) is a center-right liberal-conservative political party in Nicaragua. In the parliamentary elections of November 5, 2006, the party won 25 of 92 seats in the National Assembly, becoming the largest opposition force.

The party is the successor to the Liberal Party, which emerged after independence in the 1830s.

Previously, the party was part of the Liberal International, but left the organization in 2005.

Based on this paragraph, the following conclusions can be drawn: the political situation in the Republic of Nicaragua today is stable. This factor in the future may be the cause of economic growth and increased activity of foreign investors. The policy of recent decades has been aimed at creating and strengthening a healthy market economy, democracy, multi-party systems.

The content of the article

NICARAGUA, The Republic of Nicaragua, the largest in area among the Central American states (129,494 sq. km), reaches 540 km in width, and has access to both the Pacific Ocean, where the length of its coastline is approx. 320 km and to the Caribbean Sea (480 km of coastline); the total length of the sea border reaches 800 km. On land, Nicaragua borders Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The capital and main city of the country is Managua.

NATURE

Terrain.

Within the territory of Nicaragua, which is distinguished by a wide variety of landscapes, 4 large natural areas can be distinguished. Most of the country is occupied by a triangular mountain region tapering to the south (Nicaraguan Highlands). Adjacent to the east is a second region - a wide strip of lowlands that frames the Caribbean coast, known as the Mosquito Coast. The third area is formed by a lowland stretching across the isthmus from the hall. Fonseca southeast to the Caribbean coast, and the fourth is the volcanic zone of western Nicaragua, with numerous active volcanoes.

The central mountainous region - the Nicaraguan Highlands - is a complex system of fold-fault ridges oriented in the latitudinal direction; in the southwest they are covered with a cover of volcanic deposits. The height of the mountains in the southwest is approx. 1500 m above sea level and gradually decreases to 600 m to the east. Numerous peaks rise above the level of the ridges, reaching 2400 m. The eastern part of the region is dissected by deeply incised river valleys flowing to the east. In their lower reaches, the rivers have wide valleys with a flat bottom and flow between mountain ranges that gradually decrease to the east - towards the Caribbean Sea.

The lowland of the Mosquito Coast, in some places more than 80 km wide, stretches along the entire coast of Nicaragua starting from the river. San Juan and continues further north into Honduras. This lowland is composed of sediment from numerous rivers flowing through it, including Coco (or Segovia), Rio Escondido, Rio Grande de Matagalpa, etc., and is replete with swamps.

To the west of the mountainous region there is a wide tectonic depression, framed by extended fault lines and stretching in a southeast direction from the hall. Fonseca. Within its boundaries there are two large lakes - Managua, 51 km long and 16 to 25 km wide, and Nicaragua, 105 km long and approx. 70 km. This area is prone to frequent earthquakes. Three volcanic cones rise above the surface of Lake Nicaragua, the highest of which is Concepcion (1557 m above sea level). On the southwestern shore of Lake Managua rises the majestic Momotombo volcano (1259 m). The chain of 20 volcanoes continues further to the northwest, towards the bay. Fonseca. The lakes are separated from the Pacific Ocean by a zone of hilly and low-mountain relief ranging from 25 to 50 km wide; The height of the mountains in some places reaches 900 m.

Climate and flora.

The humid tropical climate of the Mosquito Coast and the eastern part of the mountainous region is determined by the dominance of the trade winds, bringing moisture from the Caribbean Sea. It receives more rainfall than anywhere else in Central America; the annual amount of precipitation throughout the coast exceeds 2500 mm, and in the city of San Juan del Norte - 6200 mm. Average annual temperatures are approx. 26° C, the difference between the warmest and coldest months here is less than 2° C. The coastal plains and adjacent hills are covered with dense tropical rain forests of evergreen broadleaf species. Only in the highest mountains in the southwest do oak and pine grow.

Further inland, away from the Mosquito Coast, tropical forests give way to pine savanna woodlands, a strip of which stretches from the latitude of Bluefields to the north for a distance of approx. 500 km, continuing further into the territory of Honduras. Such vegetation is usually found in the subtropical zone; its presence on the Caribbean plains appears to be due to extremely low soil fertility. A hot and humid climate is also typical for the river valley. San Juan and the southeastern shores of Lake Nicaragua. However, most of the lake lowlands are protected by mountains from moisture-carrying easterly winds, and precipitation decreases rapidly to the north, amounting to 1275 mm in Granada and 1150 mm in Managua; Most of the precipitation falls in summer. The temperature in the lakeside lowlands of this hottest region of the country at times reaches 35° C. Since precipitation falls mainly in summer, the vegetation is represented mainly by savannah woodland with isolated areas of dense semi-deciduous forest.

Animal world

Nicaragua is very rich. It is home to bears, several species of deer, and in the tropical rainforests - black panther, jaguar and ocelot. Common forest animals also include wild boar, bobcat, wolf, coyote, badger, fox, cougar, and peccary. In the lowlands there are tapirs, monkeys, anteaters, coatis, sloths and kinkajous, and the most common reptiles are alligators and snakes, including poisonous ones. The abundance of various birds is noteworthy; In addition to migratory species, wild turkeys, pheasants, parrots, including macaws, herons and toucans are found here.

POPULATION

Ethnic composition, demographics, lifestyle.

The population of Nicaragua in the early 1990s increased by 3.1% annually and in 1997 was estimated at approximately 4.4 million people, with 2/5 of this number permanently living in rural areas. It is expected that by 2005 the population of Nicaragua will exceed 5.5 million people. The consolidation of plantations for export crops in the 1970s and the threat of attacks by counter-revolutionary armed forces in the 1980s caused an intensive outflow of population from the countryside to the city, and by 1995 more than 70% of Nicaraguans lived in cities. Approximately half the population is concentrated in the central depression between lakes Managua and Nicaragua and on the Pacific coast.

The few purebred Indians, who make up 5% of the total population, are divided into two groups: the Bravo Indians, who live in the central highlands, and the Miskitos, who live on the east coast. Some of them speak only their own languages ​​- Sumo and Miskito. Blacks, who make up 9% of the population, live mainly on the Caribbean coast, many of them speak English. The center of the country and the areas adjacent to the Pacific Ocean are inhabited mainly by mestizos of Spanish-Indian origin (69%) and whites (17%); both speak Spanish and profess the Catholic religion.

Cities.

The main city of the country, Managua (with a population of 1.2 million people, estimated in 1997), has been the capital and commercial and industrial center since 1858. The center of the country's intellectual life is Leon, where the university is located, founded in 1812; its population is 101 thousand people. The railway connects Granada (88 thousand), a city on Lake Nicaragua, with the Pacific port of Corinto. Other large cities are Masaya (75 thousand), Chinandega (75 thousand) and Matagalpa (68 thousand). All these cities are located in the western part of the country. The largest city on the Caribbean coast is Bluefields with a population of 20 thousand people.

POLITICAL SYSTEM

Government.

After independence in 1826 until 1979, when a popular revolution ended the authoritarian rule of the Somoza dynasty, the country had 15 constitutions. Throughout this time, political life was determined by the rivalry between individual factions of the army elite, and during most of the 20th century. There were dictatorial regimes in the country. From 1979 to 1986 power was in the hands of the junta. In 1987, the constitution adopted by the elected legislature back in 1976 came into force.

The state and government of Nicaragua are headed by the president, the head of the executive branch, elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term. The highest legislative body is the National Assembly, whose 93 members are elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term. The judicial system includes the Supreme Court, appellate courts and lower courts. The Supreme Court consists of 12 members elected by the National Assembly for 7 years.

Administratively, the country is divided into departments and municipal districts, and special territories are also allocated. District heads are appointed by the central government, and municipal authorities are elected by the population on the basis of direct voting for a period of 6 years. The Constitution provides for cultural and administrative autonomy for the Indian and black populations, whose areas of compact residence are designated into special areas.

Political parties.

The main political party in Nicaragua until 1989 was the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), which fought for almost 20 years against the dictatorial regime of Somoza and defeated him in 1979. The Sandinista Front represented a wide range of left-wing political views, from populist authoritarian rule to Cuban model to Catholics - adherents of the so-called. "liberation theology". The FSLN program proclaims broad social reforms aimed at creating a society of social justice and equality, pluralism in politics, democracy, a mixed economy and, above all, the fight against US dominance. The FSLN won a decisive victory in the elections of November 4, 1984, when its leader was elected president with two-thirds of the total vote, and almost the same percentage of seats were won by front candidates in parliament.

In June 1989, the Opposition National Union (ONU) was created, which opposed the FSLN in the 1990 elections. It is a coalition of 14 parties, including Marxists, Christian Democrats, various Indian groups and representatives of the business community. The YPG candidate for the presidency was Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, owner of the main opposition newspaper Prensa and widow of the leader of the anti-Somos movement Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, who was killed in 1978. She received 55% of the vote, while Daniel Ortega received 40%. The distribution of seats in the National Assembly was approximately the same. The YPG emphasized that its victory in the elections would help end the armed confrontation and economic sanctions from the United States.

Armed forces.

In 1989, the Sandinista People's Army, numbering 75 thousand people, was the largest in Central America. The armed groups opposed to it were the Contras, numbering approx. 12 thousand people were partially disarmed in the mid-1990s. The Chamorran government has downsized its military and made efforts to make the army more politically neutral. In 1995, the Sandinista People's Army was officially renamed the Nicaraguan Army.

Foreign policy.

Nicaragua is a member of the UN, the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Non-Aligned Movement. For more than a hundred years, the main issue in Nicaragua's foreign policy remained its relationship with the United States, which occupied the country from 1912 to 1934.

ECONOMY

Agriculture is the basis of Nicaragua's economy. Cotton, coffee, meat and sugar are produced for export. Corn, sorghum, rice, beans, pumpkins and other food crops are grown for domestic consumption. The manufacturing industry provides about a quarter of national income. The main industries are related to the processing of agricultural raw materials - sugar refining, processing and packaging of meat products, extraction of edible oils, production of beverages, cigarettes, cocoa, instant coffee and cotton fabrics. There are several industrial plants producing cement, chemicals, paper and metal products, as well as an oil refinery.

Nicaragua is poor in mineral resources. Gold, silver and table salt are mined in small quantities; in the northern part of the country there are industrial deposits of iron ore, deposits of lead ores, tungsten and zinc. Fishing is carried out both in inland fresh waters and in the sea, but mainly for domestic consumption; On the Caribbean coast, shrimp fishing is developed, which is an important export item. Large areas of Nicaragua are occupied by forests, but they are now being intensively cut down. More than half of energy needs are met by firewood. Imported oil is used as an industrial energy source. Relatively low-power hydroelectric power stations are available in Asturias and Malacatoy, and a geothermal station has been built on the Momotombo volcano.

Economy of the pre-revolutionary period.

Before the 1979 revolution, export crops were grown mainly on large estates owned by a small elite, led by the Somoza family. These estates occupied much of the best arable land. To grow food crops for their needs, the population used inconvenient and infertile patches of land on the mountain slopes; a significant part of the food products was imported. Until the middle of the 20th century. Coffee remained the leading export crop; later cotton, meat and sugar began to be exported.

All major landowners were united into powerful associations of cotton, coffee, or pastoralists, and more than 40% of the rural population remained landless. Dispossessed peasants were hired out for seasonal work on large estates, earning less than a dollar a day. The formation of the Central American Common Market created an incentive for the rapid development of new sectors of the economy. However, most enterprises were concentrated in the capital and could provide work to only a small part of the rural residents who flocked to the city in search of work.

Sandinista period.

The revolution of 1979 brought fundamental changes to the structure of the country's economy. With the expropriation of the property of the Somoza family and its circle in the agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors, a large part of the economy came under state control. The government also nationalized all mining enterprises, banks and insurance companies and took control of all exports and some imports. Economic planning and controls over pricing, wages, credit, and foreign exchange rates were introduced. About 40% of all production in the country was under state control.

The government spent a significant portion of its funds on defense, and by the late 1980s the country was experiencing runaway inflation and severe shortages of consumer goods and medicines. In 1987, the government faced serious economic difficulties and was forced to curtail almost all social programs. By June 1989, a severe economic crisis broke out and the national currency depreciated. The black market has become more active. The UNC candidate Chamorro won the 1990 elections. The economic revival began in 1996; this year production growth was 5.5%, and in 1997 – 7%.

Transport.

Most of the transport and communication routes are concentrated in the western part of the country. Intensive road construction began in the 1940s, and until then the only relatively modern means of transport was the railway (the total length of the railway network in the 1990s was approximately 290 km). The Sandinista government made great efforts to improve the condition of roads in rural areas. In 1993, the total length of roads in the country was more than 24 thousand km, most of them without hard surfaces. The national airline Aeronika operates flights on both domestic and international routes from the capital's Las Mercedes Airport. The main seaport is Corinto, located on the Pacific coast and connected to the capital by rail.

International trade.

The main export items are agricultural products, primarily coffee, cotton, sugar, meat and bananas. Oil, non-agricultural raw materials, consumer durables and equipment are imported. Foreign trade decreased significantly in volume after 1985, when the United States, which until that time was Nicaragua's main foreign trade partner, began to boycott it. Military and political conflicts also contributed to the further decline of trade. In the 1990s, Nicaragua's main trading partners were the United States and Central American countries.

Finance and banking.

The Central Bank of Nicaragua is the only issuing bank in the country. The national currency is the cordoba. In the first half of the 1980s, the inflation rate was approx. 30% per year. Following the imposition of the embargo in 1985, the Cordoba exchange rate went down. In 1988, inflation reached 14,000% per year. After the 1990 elections, the embargo was lifted, the country again began to receive financial assistance from foreign countries, which reduced inflation to 750% in 1991 and to approximately 20% in 1992.

Under the Somoza regime, Nicaragua received large loans from international banks, and the country's external debt reached $1.6 billion. In 1991, under President Chamorro, it was possible to achieve an excess of revenues over expenses, but the next year the budget was again reduced to a deficit. In the second half of the 1990s, Nicaragua's external debt exceeded $6 billion, and the ability to pay for imports seriously deteriorated.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Education.

According to 1995 data, the National Autonomous University of Nicaragua in León (with branches in Managua and Granada) enrolled approx. 22 thousand students; another 5 thousand students were enrolled in the Nicaraguan branch of the Central American University in Managua (founded 1961). In 1979, the new government introduced free and compulsory education in primary and secondary schools. The number of primary schools was doubled and the enrollment of children in the relevant age group increased from 65% in 1978 to approximately 80% in 1991; Secondary school enrollment increased to 44%. By 1995 approx. 66% of the population could read and write.

Labor movement.

Under the Somoza regime, the activities of trade unions were strictly regulated by the government. After the revolution of 1979, the number of workers united in trade unions grew to 150 thousand people. In 1983, the largest trade unions were the Sandinista Trade Union Center of Workers and the Association of Agricultural Workers; both of these organizations were supported by the government. Independent trade unions were not banned, but strikes were outlawed and some trade union leaders were jailed.

Music.

Some ancient Indian and Spanish dances have survived to this day. The Indians, residents of remote areas, still use musical instruments that they used in the pre-Columbian era: the chirimia clarinet, the maraca rattle, the sul flute, the kihongo monochord, bells and wind instruments (horns) made from animal horns. The widespread wooden xylophone marimba indicates African influence in the national folklore. The most famous Nicaraguan composer is Luis A. Delgadillo (1887–1962).

Art.

The National Museum in Managua houses many works of art from the pre-colonial period - gold, jadeite and shells. Colonial architecture was dominated by Renaissance and Baroque styles. The sculptor Genero Amador Lira (b. 1910) and the artists Rodrigo Peñalba (1913–1982) and Armando Morales (b. 1927) came out of the School of Fine Arts that functioned in Managua.

The school of primitive painting on the island of Solentiname became famous outside the country.

Literature.

The pride of Nicaraguan culture is the great Latin American poet Ruben Dario (1867–1916), the founder of Spanish American modernism, who had a great influence on the development of Spanish-language poetry. The founder of avant-gardeism in national literature was the great poet José Coronel Urtego (b. 1906). The traditions of the political and social novel were developed by Hernán Robleto (1895–1969) and Nicaragua’s most famous modern prose writer, Sergio Ramírez (b. 1942). Social revolutionary poetry is represented by Ernesto Cardenal (b. 1925), a priest, the largest representative of the so-called. "liberation theology", minister of culture in the Sandinista government.

Sport.

The most popular sports in Nicaragua are baseball, football and basketball; Many spectators are attracted by cockfights, as well as a type of bullfighting, in which, however, the animals are not killed.

STORY

The period of Spanish colonial rule.

The coast of Nicaragua was discovered by Christopher Columbus on September 16, 1502. The western part of Nicaragua was explored and conquered by Gil Gonzalez de Avila in 1521. In 1522, by order of the governor of Panama, Pedrarias Davila, this territory was captured by Francisco Hernandez de Cordova. Having founded the cities of Leon and Granada here in 1524, he tried to create an independent state, but was defeated by the troops of Pedrarias and executed in 1526. In 1523, the territory of Nicaragua was included in Panama, and in 1573 it came under the command of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. All this time, rivalry continued between the two main cities - Leon, the intellectual and political capital of the province, and the conservative stronghold of Granada; this rivalry did not stop even after the country gained independence.

Federation of Central America.

In 1821, Mexico and the countries of Central America declared their independence from Spain, and Nicaragua, Honduras and Guatemala became part of the short-lived Mexican Empire created by Agustin de Iturbide. When news of Iturbide's fall arrived, the legislature in Guatemala City decided to create a federal state, the United Provinces of Central America (later the Federation of Central America). However, a conflict soon broke out in the federation between liberals (mostly the intellectual elite and Creole landowners) and conservatives, whose support was the Spanish landed aristocracy and the Catholic Church. In Nicaragua, this conflict was reflected in the rivalry between León and Granada. 1826–1829 was marked by anarchy and armed conflicts, which continued until the Honduran liberal Francisco Morazan managed to unite the provinces. However, political disagreements soon flared up with renewed vigor, and in 1838 the union collapsed; Nicaragua became an independent state. During the 19th century. El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua have made repeated attempts to restore the union.

Nicaraguan channel.

In addition to internal strife between parties, which had a serious impact on the situation in the country, Nicaragua suffered from expansion and direct intervention of foreign states. After gold deposits were discovered in California in 1848, the construction of a canal that would connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans became an urgent need. During the Gold Rush, Cornelius Vanderbilt organized a sea link between New York and California, with an overland crossing through Nicaragua, and in 1851 won a contract to build a canal. The route of the proposed canal was supposed to run up the San Juan River to Lake Nicaragua and then cross the strip of land separating the lake from the shore of the Pacific Ocean. However, in 1841, Great Britain captured the Mosquito Coast, establishing its protectorate over it and creating the Mosquito Kingdom, headed by the leader of the Miskito Indian tribes. On the coast hall. A settlement was founded in San Juan del Norte, called Greytown. The United States made efforts to block the efforts of the British and forced them to sign the so-called Treaty in 1850. the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, under the terms of which neither the United States nor Great Britain could obtain exclusive rights to the projected canal.

William Walker.

In 1854, the struggle between conservatives and liberals in Nicaragua resulted in a bloody civil war. Then the liberal leader Francisco Castellon decided to use the help of mercenaries from the United States. In 1855, by agreement with Castellon, the American adventurer William Walker landed in Corinto at the head of a detachment of 57 people. Shortly before this, he tried to capture the Mexican peninsula of California and the state of Sonora. Reaching Nicaragua with the help of the Vanderbilt Transportation Company, which transported Americans to Nicaragua for free, Walker quickly seized power in the country. His intentions were to conquer all of Central America and annex it to the confederacy of the southern states of the United States. In September 1856, Walker announced the restoration of slavery in Nicaragua. A month earlier, he had declared himself president, winning recognition of his regime by the United States. However, Walker became involved in a struggle between the main shareholders for control of the Vanderbilt company, quarreled with Vanderbilt himself and seized the company's property and equipment in Nicaragua. Enraged, Vanderbilt cut off Walker's supply and reinforcement channels and sent his agents to aid the anti-Walker coalition, which included Honduras, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Costa Rica. By April 1857, the allied army pushed the filibuster troops to the coast. In May, Walker abandoned his followers and surrendered to the US Navy. In November 1857, Walker repeated his attempt to capture Nicaragua and was again unsuccessful. In the spring of 1860 he invaded Honduras, was defeated and executed by court.

Agreements.

Attempts to build a canal were made several times throughout the 19th century. In 1901, the United States and Great Britain signed an agreement on the status of the future canal, the so-called Hay-Pounceforth Treaty, which annulled the previous Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. In accordance with the new agreement, the United States received the right to construct and manage the canal, provided that it would be open to all countries.

After lengthy debate in the US Congress, it was decided to begin construction of a canal in Panama; to a certain extent, this decision was influenced by the revolution in Panama in 1903. However, the United States remained interested in using the route through Nicaragua; Despite objections from Costa Rica, Honduras and El Salvador, the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty was signed in 1916, under which the United States paid an amount of $3 million and received a 99-year lease of the Maize Islands off the east coast of Nicaragua, as well as the right build a military base in the hall. Fonseca and the exclusive right to build the canal.

US intervention.

In 1893, the government of Nicaragua was headed by the leader of the Liberal Party, Jose Santos Zelaya, who began to pursue a policy of limiting foreign interference. Under him, Nicaraguan sovereignty was restored over the city of Bluefields and the Mosquito Coast, which were under British control. State banks were created, railways were built and telegraph communication was organized; the influx of foreign capital into the country has increased.

Zelaya tried to limit US influence in Nicaragua. Having used the help of the Americans to clear the Caribbean coast of the British, he refused to give them the exclusive right to build a canal and introduced a number of investment restrictions. In response to this, in 1909 the United States began to provide support - first diplomatic and then military - to the Conservative Party, which carried out a coup d'etat. However, the conservatives could not hold power in the country for long. Social and political instability grew, and in 1912 US Marines arrived in the country to restore order.

After the withdrawal of US Marines from Nicaragua in 1925, conservatives tried to establish themselves in power, but this provoked armed resistance, and in January 1927, North American troops again landed in Nicaragua. The United States developed the terms of a political agreement between the Conservative and Liberal parties, but several liberal leaders led by Augusto Sandino refused to lay down their arms.

Sandino's supporters waged a bitter guerrilla war, making increasingly radical demands as conditions for a cessation of hostilities, and the United States came to the conclusion that a local force was needed. The National Guard became such a force, at the head of which the Americans put Anastasio Somoza Garcia, who once lived in the United States and was involved in the car trade there. In 1933, the United States withdrew Marines from Nicaragua, and in 1934, Somoza's guards killed Sandino and a number of military leaders of the movement during negotiations between the Sandinistas and the government in Managua.

Somoza regime.

Soon, Somoza finally defeated the liberals and won the presidential election in 1937 (ballots were counted by the National Guard). For 20 years until his death, Anastasio Somoza ruled the country as his personal property, accumulating a fortune of $60 million during this time. In 1956, he was succeeded by his eldest son, Luis Somoza Debayle, who remained as president until 1963, when he was replaced Rene Chic Gutierrez. In 1967, the position of president was taken by Luis Somoza's brother, a graduate of the US Army Academy at West Point, Anastasio Somoza Debayle, who ruled the country until his overthrow in 1979.

The reign of the Somoza clan was marked by repeated interference in the internal affairs of neighboring countries. The elder Somoza opposed the leftist regimes of Presidents Arevalo and Arbenz in Guatemala and assisted the CIA in overthrowing Arbenz in 1954. He financed opposition to the social democratic regime of Costa Rican President José Figueres and came close to invading that country in 1954. 1961 Nicaragua became the launching pad for the invasion of Cuba (landing at Bay of Cochinos).

Revolution.

In 1974, the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), an underground organization founded in 1961 and taking the name of Augusto Sandino, who was killed by Somoza, intensified its protests against the Somoza regime. The government imposed martial law, but many influential groups, including business interests and the church, opposed the government. In 1978, moderate opposition leader Chamorro was assassinated, causing an outbreak of strikes. In September, a massive popular uprising began against the government led by the FSLN. Somoza sent planes and tanks against the rebels; The death toll exceeded 2,000, but on July 19, 1979, after an offensive that lasted a month, the Sandinista armed forces entered Managua in victory.

A provisional democratic government of national revival was created in the country . The National Guard was disbanded and the Sandinista People's Army was created in its place. The government began its program of national revival with the nationalization of large estates, banks and some industrial enterprises, but the nationalization did not affect the property of the industrialists who opposed Somoza.

Friction soon began between the Sandinistas and the business community, whose representatives left the government in 1980. In 1981, the US government suspended economic assistance to Nicaragua on the pretext that Salvadoran rebels were receiving weapons from Cuba through Nicaragua, and soon the US began to provide direct military assistance to the remnants of the National Guard who fled the country.

By 1983, the Sandinista government continued to enjoy growing popular support, especially among the peasantry and urban poor, but at this time it had to face opposition that included organized business, the high Catholic clergy, social democratic and some communist (pro-Chinese) trade unions, and the Mosquito Coast Indians. , English-speaking black communities of the Caribbean coast. The country's leading newspaper, Prensa, became the spokesman for the opposition's ideas. Armed uprisings also began on the part of US-funded counter-revolutionary groups (the so-called contras), which carried out raids from bases located on the territory of Honduras. The contras were joined by the Miskito Indians, who were evicted from their lands by the Sandinista government, concerned about the security of the border along the Coco River. However, the various opposition groups were divided, as most of them were extremely hostile towards each other.

During 1984, the United States increased its military presence in Honduras and El Salvador. The Contras' military activity increased, and they began to carry out air raids into Nicaraguan territory, and US Navy ships cruising off the coast of Nicaragua helped mine Nicaraguan ports. The countries of the Contadora Group - Mexico, Panama, Colombia and Venezuela - developed a peace plan, the main provisions of which were a mutual non-aggression agreement between the Central American countries and the withdrawal of all foreign armed forces and military advisers from them. Nicaragua accepted these proposals, but the United States opposed them.

On November 4, 1984, elections for the President and members of the National Assembly were held in the country. Although the US government tried to persuade the two main opposition parties to boycott the elections, more than 80% of the electorate took part. Sandinista candidate Daniel Ortega Saavedra received two-thirds of the vote and became president. In 1985, newly elected US President Ronald Reagan imposed an embargo on US trade with Nicaragua. In response, the Nicaraguan government declared a state of emergency, which made it possible to suppress the protests of contra supporters, and came to the International Court of Justice accusing the United States of aggression.

In subsequent years, when the contras' military successes were rather modest and dissatisfaction with Reagan's foreign policy was growing in the US Congress, the countries of Central America began to look for a way out of this situation. In 1987, Costa Rican President Oscar Arias proposed a detailed plan aimed at restoring democracy in the country and disarming the Contras; this plan was accepted by the Nicaraguan government. The US Congress voted in March 1988 to cut off military aid to the contras, thereby forcing them to negotiate.

In February 1989, in accordance with the plan for peace in Central America, the Nicaraguan government scheduled the next elections for February 1990. The Sandinistas were confident of victory, but many Nicaraguans feared that if the FSLN remained in power, the US would continue to support the Contras and the economic situation the country will deteriorate further. The Opposition National Union, a coalition of 14 parties supported by the United States, which opposed the Sandinistas, won the elections with 55% of the vote. YPG leader Violeta Barrios de Chamorro took office as president in April 1990.

Nicaragua after the Sandinistas.

In the early 1990s, Nicaraguan politics was determined largely by temporary agreements negotiated between the Chamorro government and the defeated Sandinistas. To ensure political stability during the transition period, the new government pledged to take a balanced approach; it was promised, in particular, that land reform and other decisions of the Sandinista government regarding property would not be reversed, and that the 1987 constitution would remain in force. Chamorro also promised to retain command of the country's armed forces with General Humberto Ortega, the Sandinista defense minister; the police remained under Sandinista control. Several parties that were part of the YPG felt that the government was making too many concessions to the Sandinistas and stopped supporting it.

Despite a 1990 disarmament agreement with the new government, some Contra leaders refused to recognize the agreement after Chamorro left the Sandinista Ortega as commander-in-chief. They argued that they could not be sure of their safety if the army and police remained under Sandinista control. By April 1991, about a thousand former counter-revolutionaries created detachments of the “new contras” and demanded that the government investigate the killings of former contras by the military. In response, FSLN veterans also armed themselves, and for some time there was a serious threat of armed clashes between the two forces in rural areas. In 1992, the government managed to defuse the situation by offering both groups monetary compensation for surrendering their weapons and promising to provide them with land and build houses.

The fulfillment of promises made by the government to the Sandinista opposition soon came into question due to the need to comply with the requirements of the International Monetary Fund, to which the Chamorro administration asked for loans. Attempts to reduce public sector employment and privatize state property in 1990 caused a massive wave of strikes that virtually paralyzed the economy. Although inflation was brought down by the development of free markets and renewed American aid, by 1993 the number of people unemployed or underemployed was estimated at 71% of the working population. As a result of the economic restructuring carried out in accordance with the requirements of the IMF, opposition to the government increased in the National Assembly, which lost the support of former allies. In 1992, senior Catholic clergy, who had previously opposed Sandinista policies, began publicly criticizing the Chamorro government's austerity measures as a cause of the country's growing poverty.

While the Chamorro government became isolated, the Sandinista opposition became deeply divided by the mid-1990s. During the transition period after the 1990 elections, some representatives of the Sandinista administration appropriated state property, including houses, cars, estates, businesses and foreign exchange reserves, the value of which was estimated at approximately $300 million. Thus, an entrepreneurial elite was formed among the Sandinistas, which caused the indignation of the majority members of the Sandinista movement from the lower or middle strata. The scandal has also led to divisions within the government between President Chamorro, who agreed to the transfer of property as part of a transition agreement with the Sandinistas, and her former YPG allies in the National Assembly.

By 1992, a split had emerged between factions within the FSLN, namely between the Social Democrats, who proposed, while criticizing the government, to nevertheless support it in the fight against Somoza’s supporters, and those who advocated radical opposition to the new government. In 1995, several leaders of the FSLN left its membership and organized the Sandinista Renewal Movement (SRM), a group whose program maintained the general goals of the Sandinistas but proclaimed a greater degree of internal democracy. Among the DSO members are many Sandinista activists who took part in the uprising against Somoza in 1970, including former Vice President Sergio Ramirez, Dora Maria Telles, Luis Carrion, Myrna Cunningham, Ernesto and Fernando Cardenal. FSLN leader Daniel Ortega tried to negotiate with the DSO about joint participation in the presidential elections scheduled for October 1996, but the leadership of the DSO rejected this proposal.

Within the government itself, disagreements between the legislative and executive branches of government reached such a degree that they literally paralyzed political life in the country.

Arnoldo Aleman Lacayo won the 1996 elections, and the transfer of power was carried out peacefully in accordance with democratic procedures.

On October 27, 1998, Hurricane Mitch swept over central America. Winds reaching 250 km per hour demolished buildings and destroyed plantations of coffee and other crops. Within a few days, almost 11 thousand people died from floods and landslides, and more than 8 thousand were missing. Honduras and Nicaragua were hit hardest. The country's economy and infrastructure suffered a heavy blow.

Nicaragua in the 21st century

In the presidential elections on November 4, 2001, the candidate from the ruling Constitutional Liberal Party of Nicaragua, Enric Bolanos, won and was elected president of the country. Over 2 million voters took part in the elections. E. Bolanos received 56% of the votes. His opponent was the Sandinista leader and former head of the country Daniel Ortega.

In November 2006, Daniel Ortega won the presidential election, receiving 38% of the vote against 29% for right-wing candidate Eduardo Montealegre. Between 75% and 80% of Nicaraguans took part in the elections. This choice confirms the leftward shift that has occurred in Nicaragua after 16 years of conservative rule.

Literature:

Leshchiner R.E. . M., 1965
Leonov N.S. Essays on the modern and recent history of the countries of Central America. M., 1975
History of Latin America, vol. 1. M., 1991; vol. 2. M., 1993



The Republic of Nicaragua borders Costa Rica in the south and Honduras in the northwest. The east coast is washed by the Caribbean Sea, the southwest by the Pacific Ocean. Its area is 148 thousand km 2. Due to the fact that it is possible to build a second interoceanic canal through the territory of the republic (in addition to the Panama one), Nicaragua is of great strategic importance.

Brief historical sketch

In the Republic of Nicaragua, which arose in 1839, from the very beginning of its existence there was a struggle for power between the liberals (they reflected the interests of the commercial bourgeoisie of Leon) and the conservatives (the party of the landowner aristocracy of Granada, later associated with the United States).

In connection with projects to build a canal from the Caribbean Sea to the Pacific Ocean along the river. San Juan and Lake Nicaragua and the Anglo-American struggle intensified. During this struggle, England captured the Mosquito Coast on the Caribbean coast and during 1841-1860. held him in her arms. Under the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850), both powers pledged not to occupy the territory of Nicaragua and surrounding areas. However, England was in no hurry to implement the treaty for another ten years, and five years after its conclusion, a detachment of North American adventurers invaded the country from the opposite side, whose leader Walker seized power, proclaimed himself president (1856-1857) and declared the introduction of slavery. Despite the support of the United States, it was defeated in the summer of 1857 by the united troops of the Central American republics.

Then, almost until the end of the century, conservatives were in power, and US influence steadily increased. Attempts by the liberal President Zelaya (1893-1909) to somewhat limit the penetration of North Americans led to a US-inspired coup. Since 1912, the republic was occupied by United States troops, who (with a short break) remained there until 1933. In 1914, under the Bryan-Chamorro Treaty, the United States received the right to build a canal through the territory of Nicaragua and the right to build military bases here. Already during this period, the country's economy fell under the power of North American monopolies (primarily United Fruit).

During the struggle against the occupiers, the Communist Party of Nicaragua was created (1925; since 1930, transformed into the Socialist Party). In 1927-1934. The people of Nicaragua waged an armed struggle against the occupiers and their local minions. That fight was led by Cesar Augusto Sandino. In January 1934, he was treacherously assassinated by Nicaraguan reactionaries.

Since 1936, General Anastasio Somoza, closely associated with North American imperialism, was in power. Having established a bloody dictatorship in the country, he quickly became the richest man in Nicaragua. Somoza's fortune was estimated at $200 million 1

In 1950, a new constitution was adopted, which outlawed the Socialist Party. Carrying out brutal repressions against the popular masses, Somoza established increasingly close relations with the United States (military agreement of 1954, participation in the intervention against Guatemala). At the end of 1956, the dictator was killed and power passed to his son, who at the beginning of 1957 was “elected” president of the republic.

Current economic situation

Nicaragua is a backward agricultural country. The main crops are coffee (in the eastern part of the republic), cotton (ibid.), bananas (on the west coast), sugar cane, sesame, etc. Most of the large plantations are in the hands of US companies, as well as members of the Somoza family. Cattle breeding is developed in the Central Lowland and adjacent mountainous areas; The forest resources of the western part of Nicaragua (cedar, rosewood, mahogany, logwood, etc.) are exploited by North American firms. They also control gold mining and conduct oil exploration. Deposits of copper, polymetallic and iron ores are not being developed. Industry is predominantly food (mainly sugar, where half of the workers are employed), footwear, etc. There are several small textile factories.

The situation of the working people of Nicaragua and, above all, the main part of them - the peasants - is extremely difficult. Almost half of them are farm laborers. On a fairly large scale, there is peonage, leasing under very difficult working conditions. The struggle of farm laborers for a better future is led by trade unions, which arouse the furious hatred of the authorities, landowners and planters. These unions are essentially outlawed and the wildest arbitrariness is allowed in relation to them. Thus, in October 1954, at a meeting of agricultural workers in Yali (department of Jinotega), a large local landowner, parliamentarian Porfirio Molina Rodriguez, shot and killed two union leaders - Romualdo Hernandez Mercado and Quiriaco Zamora - and seriously wounded two. This crime, despite a widespread protest movement throughout the country, remained unpunished 1 .

Political system

The Republic of Nicaragua is headed by a president elected for six years. The Congress, consisting of two chambers (the Senate - 18 people and the Chamber of Deputies - 42 people), is elected for the same term. In addition, all former presidents of the republic automatically enter the Senate. The right to vote is enjoyed by men from 21 years of age (literate - from 18 years of age) and literate women from 18 years of age.

Over the past two decades, this constitution covered the dictatorship of Somoza, who appointed members of his family to the highest positions in the state. Thus, his eldest son Luis was the chairman of the Chamber of Deputies, the second son was the commander of the army, etc. In the elections in February 1957. The victory was “won” by the “Liberal Nationalist Party” created by the dictator. Of the opposition, only the right-wing conservative party took part in the elections, and even that government was faced with all sorts of obstacles. The election campaign was accompanied by arrests of opponents of the government, even from among non-leftist elements. The elections themselves were nothing more than a staging designed to legitimize an already accomplished fact - the rise to power of the son of the murdered * dictator - Luis Somoza Debayle.

Ethnic composition of the population

According to 1957 data, 1,331 thousand people live in Nicaragua. The average density is 8.9 people per 1 km 2. The population is distributed unevenly - almost 7U% of it is concentrated in the west of the republic, in the most fertile region with the healthiest climate. The amateur population (1950) is 333 thousand, of which 67.7% are employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing, 11.4% in manufacturing, 10.5% in services, 4.7% in trade and finance. %* in construction 2.7%, in transport and communications - 1.8%, in the mining industry - less than 1%, etc.

The majority of Nicaraguans (approximately 68%) are Ladinos (people of mixed Indian and Spanish descent). Almost all of them live in the west of the republic. White - about 17%. These are, firstly, the descendants of the Spanish colonialists (although many of them are related by origin to the Indian population of the country); then come immigrants from Spain in the 19th and 20th centuries. and their descendants; there are a number of immigrants from the USA and various European countries, as well as Syrians and Lebanese (mostly traders). Almost all whites live in western Nicaragua. Among the dominant group of large landowners, cattle breeders, and planters in the republic, they predominate (although, of course, the majority of Nicaraguan whites are workers: workers, peasants, intellectuals). North Americans make up the majority of the white population in the East; there are quite a few of them in the capital; these are businessmen and specialists associated with the largest plantations, logging, mines, etc.

Blacks, living primarily on the east coast, make up about 10% of the population. They appeared here in the middle of the 17th century* (fugitives from slave ships). Many blacks mixed with the local Indian population (descendants from such marriages are called Sambo). In the XVIII-XX centuries. Quite significant groups of blacks from the West Indies were brought here. Blacks, mulattoes, Sambos, and mestizos constitute (along with the remnants of the Indians) the most oppressed part of the population of Nicaragua. These are plantation and forestry workers, small peasants and farm laborers.

There is also a small Chinese population living in the country. Their main occupation is trade, and almost all of them live in the city of Bluefields, the center of the eastern part of the republic.

The reactionary nature of the Nicaraguan regime is also manifested in discriminatory measures against certain groups of the population. Thus, back in 1930, blacks, Chinese, Turks, Arabs and Jews were actually prohibited from entering the country.

The Indian population in Nicaragua is about 5%. The vast majority of them were exterminated by the colonialists, some mixed with the newcomer population. The largest remaining group, the Mysquito Indians (of the Chibcha linguistic family), inhabit the east coast and number 17-20 thousand people. They are often called mosquitoes, which is why the east coast is called the Mosquito Coast. The Suma Indians (of the same family) are found in isolated villages in the interior of the country. The Rama tribe lives near Bluefields Bay. A significant number of Indians have an admixture of Negro blood. In addition, there was a mixing of Indians from different tribes, primarily the Miskito and Sumo.

The Miskito Indians are mainly engaged in hunting, fishing, and slash-and-burn agriculture. Men burn and clear the area (usually near a navigable river), women cultivate it and harvest the crops. After two or three years, the site is abandoned and moved to another location. The main crops are bananas and sweet potatoes. In some areas there is a transition to a higher type of agriculture: rice, cotton, and sugar cane are cultivated. In addition to participating in farming, hunting and fishing, men are engaged in the manufacture of hunting weapons, various utensils, and also (together with women) boats. The latter are of great importance in the jungles of western Nicaragua, since the only means of communication there are rivers. Rubber mining is widespread. Rubber juice and animal skins are exchanged for bullets, gunpowder, salt, etc.

For those Miskito groups that live close to white settlements, other occupations are typical: work on plantations, logging, mines, etc. Indians constitute the lowest paid category of workers in Nicaragua.

Attempts to help the Indian population - to return some lands, create a health care system, establish a National Indian Institute (1943) - meet the aspirations of the general public in Nicaragua, but under existing conditions they are unlikely to significantly improve the situation of the Indians 2.

Language

The state and native language of the vast majority of the population is Spanish. Nicaraguans speak a special dialect, distinguished by some peculiarities of vocabulary, as well as soft pronunciation; blacks speak the West Indian dialect of English. The Indians have largely lost their tribal languages. They speak mainly English (this is the spoken language on the Mosquito Coast, where the first colonizers were the British). Spanish is not widely spoken among them. 40% of the population lives in cities. The largest city is the capital of the republic (since 1846) Managua

(177 thousand people). Long before the Spanish conquest, there was a large Indian settlement on this site. There are very few ancient buildings in the city, since it was almost destroyed by the earthquake of 1931. Center

Settlements. Cities. Dwellings

Managua is now paved with asphalt and many new one-story white concrete buildings have been built, often with bright red or blue tile roofs. Buildings with two or three floors are an exception; they are almost never built anymore due to earthquakes. In architecture, they resemble buildings typical of the southern regions of the United States.

The main street of the city is named after Franklin D. Roosevelt and is decorated with a large monument to the US President (in modernist style). An interesting monument to the outstanding poet - a native of the republic - Ruben Dario, erected on the shore of the lake. Managua. One of the most beautiful buildings in Managua is the Presidential Palace, which has a vast garden on its patio. There are generally many gardens and parks in the center of the capital. On the shore of the lake Managua is home to a favorite walking place for residents of the capital - Malekbn Park. Another attraction of the city is the so-called “Traces of Akaulinka” - traces of people and animals who fled from a volcanic eruption several thousand years ago, preserved in frozen lava flows. These lava layers were discovered near the capital relatively recently, removed from the ground and put on display in the early 40s.

The outskirts of Managua, undeveloped, with many shacks where the poor live, usually do not appear in advertising guidebooks, but they are an integral part of the appearance of the Nicaraguan capital, as well as any capitalist city in general.

Two other large cities - Leon (59 thousand) and Granada (35 thousand) - were founded in 1524. In architecture, these are cities of the old, colonial type - with narrow streets, plazas (squares), planted with trees, with cobblestone streets, with beautiful churches built long before Nicaragua's independence. On the outskirts of Granada, Indian huts with thatched or reed roofs have also been preserved. There are also more houses made of adobe, covered with a layer of plaster, with patios and other characteristic features of old Spanish architecture. The appearance of other cities (Matagalpa - 58 thousand, Jinotega - 41.7 thousand) is much less unique.

On plantations, workers live in single-story wooden barracks, often raised on stilts. An ordinary peasant hut is built of wood or adobe, with a gable thatched roof. In the yard there is a cattle pen made of thick tree trunks. There is also a vegetable garden and several fruit trees 1.

Finally, houses on the Mosquito Coast, especially in its center, Bluefields, most often resemble buildings of the Antilles. There are so many valuable timber species here that you can often find, for example, a house built of mahogany.

Cloth

The clothes of the townspeople are of the usual European type, most often white. Wide-brimmed hats and a bright neckerchief are, perhaps, all the details of an ancient men's suit that have survived to this day. Only on holidays can you see a traditional women's outfit - a bright (or white, but with colored embroidery) blouse with a large neckline and short sleeves; many threads of multi-colored beads; a long skirt, often with frills, also, as a rule, quite colorful. Nicaraguan women usually do not wear headdresses, but often decorate their hair with flowers. The old men's national costume - wide light trousers, a bright belt with tassels, a white shirt, a dark jacket, a sombrero - can also be seen only on holidays.

For peasants and workers, buying clothes is a big expense. At least 2/3 of the country's inhabitants walk barefoot.

The Indian population in those areas where it comes into contact with the rest of the inhabitants of Nicaragua wears the same clothes as them, only older and cheaper. The clothing of the Negroes of the Mosquito Coast is, in general, no different from that of the West Indians.

Food

The basis of the diet of workers and peasants is tortillas and beans. Various types of bananas occupy a significant place in the diet. Among the national dishes (which, however, are not very accessible to the masses), festive dishes like nakata-mal (corn flour pie with meat, chicken and vegetables) and sweets like a drink made from milk with syrup, pineapple juice with cinnamon, etc. have been preserved. The inhabitants of the “coffee” country, Nicaraguans, consume a lot of coffee. Working people eat almost no meat, buy very little milk, fish, etc. Food prices are very high.

Life Entertainment

As in other Latin American countries, urban life is heavily influenced by the United States. Among the characteristic Nicaraguan entertainments, the August holiday has been preserved (from the 1st to the 10th), formally associated with the cult of one of the Catholic saints (Domingo de Guzman), but in fact including folk festivals, carnivals and horse races in all cities of the republic. Festive processions of ancient carriages (Berlinas) with girls in national costumes follow the streets of Managua. Cavalcades of horsemen in sombreros accompany images of the saint carried through the streets. Many cities host masked dances.

Various sports are very popular in Nicaragua, primarily baseball, football, golf, tennis, and swimming. Managua has a stadium with a capacity of 40 thousand spectators.

Education

There are just over four thousand schools in the country, of which only a few dozen are secondary. Vez secondary educational institutions are owned by individuals or organizations; the state only provides them with some assistance.

Training in them is paid. The university in Leon trains doctors and lawyers, and, at a special faculty in Managua, engineers. For the vast majority of the population, even primary education is inaccessible: 2/3 of the country is still illiterate.

Religion

The majority of the population professes the Catholic religion. The Catholic Church is closely associated with the Somoza dictatorship. Blacks are mostly Protestants of various persuasions. Remnants of old African religious ideas have also been preserved among them. The Indians, officially converted to Catholic or Protestant faith, largely retained their ancient beliefs.

Culture

As noted above, very few Indians survived in the republic. Blacks make up a small percentage of the population, but they speak a foreign language in relation to the bulk of it and do not take part in the formation of the culture of Nicaragua. (At the same time, it should be pointed out that in eastern Nicaragua - the Mosquito Coast region - a special culture with a predominance of the Negro element and a fairly significant admixture of Indians. The role of Nicaraguans speaking Spanish is very small here. The culture of the Mosquito Coast is in many respects close to the West Indian culture, although the Indian element gives it unique, unique features).

Culture of Nicaragua in the 19th century. relied mainly on traditions in which the Spanish element played a predominant role. This path of development led to the appearance in Nicaraguan literature of the outstanding poet Ruben Dario (real name - Felix Ruben Garcia Sarmiento (1867-1916). Dario's poems are brilliant in form, and he is deservedly considered one of the greatest poets who wrote in Spanish, a reformer of Spanish poetry In many of his works, he glorified his native country, its beautiful nature, the complex and difficult history of the peoples of the American continent. Dario’s creative heritage also contains angry lines about the sad fate of Latin America, which became a victim of foreign enslavers (for example, the poem “Columbus”, partially translated into Russian back in 1942. 1 The poet spoke out against the invasion of Yankee imperialism in Central and South America (the poem “Song to Roosevelt”, a number of journalistic speeches). The work of this subtle lyricist and great master of verse played an outstanding role in the development of Latin American and all Spanish-language poetry 2. Dario wrote not only poetry, he was also a prose writer, critic, publicist, and translator (in particular, he translated from French M. Gorky’s story “Mother”).

Among contemporary writers of Nicaragua, Hernan Robleto (born 1892) is considered the most important - the author of a number of novels, poetry collections, and plays published in the republic and abroad. His novel “Strangled”, published in 1931, is dedicated to 1926-1929, the period of North American intervention. A translation of an excerpt from it was published in the Soviet press. Among the poets one can name Aviles Ramirez. The largest composer is considered to be Gilberto M. Vega (born 1895), who owns a number of adaptations of folklore, several collections of songs, musical comedies, etc. He also writes church music.

There is no permanent theater in Nicaragua.

NICARAGUA: GOVERNMENT SYSTEM To the article NICARAGUA Government. After independence in 1826 until 1979, when a popular revolution ended the authoritarian rule of the Somoza dynasty, the country had 15 constitutions. Throughout this time, political life was determined by the rivalry between individual factions of the army elite, and during most of the 20th century. There were dictatorial regimes in the country. From 1979 to 1986 power was in the hands of the junta. In 1987, the constitution adopted by the elected legislature back in 1976 came into force. The state and government of Nicaragua is headed by the president - the head of the executive branch, elected by direct universal suffrage for a five-year term. The highest legislative body is the National Assembly, whose 93 members are elected by direct universal suffrage for a 5-year term. The judicial system includes the Supreme Court, appellate courts and lower courts. The Supreme Court consists of 12 members elected by the National Assembly for 7 years. Administratively, the country is divided into departments and municipal districts, and special territories are also allocated. District heads are appointed by the central government, and municipal authorities are elected by the population on the basis of direct voting for a period of 6 years. The Constitution provides for cultural and administrative autonomy for the Indian and black populations, whose areas of compact residence are designated into special areas. Political parties. The main political party in Nicaragua until 1989 was the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN), which fought for almost 20 years against the dictatorial regime of Somoza and defeated him in 1979. The Sandinista Front represented a wide range of left-wing political views, from populist authoritarian rule to Cuban model to Catholics - adherents of the so-called. "liberation theology". The FSLN program proclaims broad social reforms aimed at creating a society of social justice and equality, pluralism in politics, democracy, a mixed economy and, above all, the fight against US dominance. The FSLN won a decisive victory in the elections of November 4, 1984, when its leader was elected president with two-thirds of the total vote, and almost the same percentage of seats were won by front candidates in parliament. In June 1989, the Opposition National Union (ONU) was created, which opposed the FSLN in the 1990 elections. It is a coalition of 14 parties, including Marxists, Christian Democrats, various Indian groups and representatives of the business community. The YPG candidate for the presidency was Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, owner of the main opposition newspaper Prensa and widow of the leader of the anti-Somos movement Pedro Joaquin Chamorro, who was killed in 1978. She received 55% of the vote, while Daniel Ortega received 40%. The distribution of seats in the National Assembly was approximately the same. The YPG emphasized that its victory in the elections would help end the armed confrontation and economic sanctions from the United States. Armed forces. In 1989, the Sandinista People's Army, numbering 75 thousand people, was the largest in Central America. The armed groups opposed to it were the Contras, numbering approx. 12 thousand people were partially disarmed in the mid-1990s. The Chamorran government has downsized its military and made efforts to make the army more politically neutral. In 1995, the Sandinista People's Army was officially renamed the Nicaraguan Army. International relationships. Nicaragua is a member of the UN, the Organization of American States (OAS) and the Non-Aligned Movement. For more than a hundred years, the main issue in Nicaragua's foreign policy remained its relationship with the United States, which occupied the country from 1912 to 1934.

The President of Nicaragua is the head of state and at the same time the head of government, as well as the supreme commander in chief (Article 144). The President and Vice President are elected by direct popular vote for a five-year term. They do not have the right of re-election (that is, they can only be re-elected after the end of the term of office of the next president). To be elected, a candidate only needs to obtain a relative majority of votes (Article 146). If a candidate receives less than 40% of the votes or the difference between him and the runner-up is less than 5%, a second round of elections is held. The second-place candidate receives a seat in the National Assembly (Article 147). The constitution prohibits relatives of the current president from running for office.

The highest executive body is the Council of Ministers, formed and headed by the president (and in his absence, by the vice president).

The powers and functions of the president include: guaranteeing the implementation of the constitution; ensuring the security of the nation; command of the armed forces; exercise of supreme executive power; implementation of foreign policy; approval, promulgation and execution of laws adopted by the National Assembly; setting dates for extraordinary sessions of the meeting; submission of legislative initiatives to the National Assembly; veto power over laws passed by the National Assembly; submission to the National Assembly of an annual report on the results of government activities; presentation of the draft budget to the National Assembly; chairmanship of the Council of Ministers; implementation of foreign policy; appointment and removal of ministers, deputy ministers, secretaries, ambassadors and other employees; management of state property, etc. (Article 150).

The powers and functions of the vice president include: participation in the work of the Council of Ministers; participation in the implementation of foreign policy; chairmanship of the Council of Ministers in the absence of the president, etc.

The powers and functions of ministers include: appointment and removal of officials; assistance in drafting presidential decrees; presenting plans and work reports to the president; presentation of the ministry's draft budget to the president; management of the work of the ministry; participation in parliamentary debates within their competence; ensuring strict execution of laws, etc. Ministers, like the president, have immunity, but can also be deprived of it, since they bear personal legal responsibility for their actions.

The President proposes to the National Assembly a list of candidates for election as members of the Supreme Court. In the event of a break in the work of the National Assembly, the President assumes the functions of the legislative branch. In addition, he can issue decrees that have the force of secondary legislation.