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Genealogical classification of languages
I. Indo-European language family
(13 groups or branches)
1. Indian (Indo-Aryan) group
Includes Old, Middle and Modern Indian languages.
In total more than 96 living languages
1) Hindustani
- New Indian literary language. Has two varieties: Hindi
(official language India);
Urdu
(the official language of Pakistan).
Dead:
2)
Vedic
- the language of the ancient sacred books (Vedas) of the Aryans, who invaded India in the middle of the 2nd millennium BC; Sanskrit is the literary language of ancient Indians from the 3rd century. BC. to the 7th century AD Has two forms: epic
(language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana) and classical
(formed in the 1st millennium AD).
2. Iranian group
1) Persian (Farsi), Pashto (Afghan)
- the official language of Afghanistan, Tajik, Kurdish, Ossetian, Pamir
- unwritten languages of the Pamirs.
Dead:
2) Old Persian
- the language of cuneiform inscriptions of the Achamenid era; Avestan
- the language of the holy book "Avesta" is close to Sanskrit; Median, Parthian, Sogdian, Khorezmian, Scythian, Saka
.
3. Slavic group
Slavic languages were formed on the basis of one common language,
the collapse of which dates back to the middle of the 1st millennium AD.
1) Eastern subgroup: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian
;
2) Southern subgroup: Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian
(Serbs have a letter based on the Russian alphabet, Croats have a letter based on Latin).
Dead:
3)
Old Church Slavonic
(Old Church Slavonic or Church Slavonic).
4) Western subgroup: Czech, Slovak, Polish, Kashubian, Serbo-Sorbian
(has two adverbs - Upper Sorbian and Lower Sorbian
).
Dead:
5)
Polabsky
- was distributed on the banks of the river. Labs (Elbes) until the 17th century.
4. Baltic group
1) Lithuanian, Latvian, Latgalian.
Dead:
2) Prussian
- was widespread in East Prussia, due to the forced Germanization of the Prussians, it fell out of use at the end of the 18th century;
3)
Curonian
- the language of the population of Courland.
5. German group
Includes 3 subgroups: northern, western and eastern (dead)
1) Northern (Scandinavian) subgroup: Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Farrish;
2) West German subgroup: English, Dutch*, Flemish, German (developed in the 16th century), Yiddish (New Hebrew).
* NOTE. After the text you are reading was posted on the Internet, the editor of the site received the following letter:
I would like to draw the attention of the site authors to the inaccuracy in the classification of languages. As a certified specialist in the Dutch language, with full knowledge of the subject, I assert that it is inappropriate to talk about “Dutch” and “Flemish” languages. The Dutch and Flemings have a common literary language - Dutch. All major philological reference books and dictionaries, including the Great Explanatory Dictionary of the Dutch Language (Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal) are the fruit of the joint work of Dutch and Flemish linguists.
6. Roman group
1) French, Italian, Sardinian (Sardinian), Spanish, Catalan, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldovan, Romansh
- the official language of Switzerland, Creole
- the language crossed with French. Haiti.
Dead:
2)
Medieval Vulgar Latin
- folk Latin dialects early Middle Ages, which, when crossed with the languages of the Roman provinces, became the basis of modern Romance languages.
7. Celtic group
1) Irish, Scottish, Breton, Welsh (Welsh).
Dead:
2)
Gallic.
8. Greek group
1) Greek (Modern Greek).
Dead:
2)
Ancient Greek; Central Greek (Byzantine).
9. Albanian group
1) Albanian.
10. Armenian group
1) Armenian.
Dead groups of the Indo-European language family:
11) Anatolian - Hittite, Luwian, Lydian
(were common in Asia Minor);
12) Italian - Latin and Umbrian languages
;
13) Tocharian - Karasharsky, Kuchansky
(known from manuscripts of the 5th-7th centuries, found during excavations in Chinese Turkestan in the 20th century).
II. Semito-Hamitic (Afroasiatic) language family
1. Semitic group
1) Northern subgroup: Isorian
Dead:
2)
Aramaic, Akkadian, Phoenician, Canaanite, Hebrew (Hebrew).
In Hebrew in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. spoke the Jews of Palestine. The most important monument of the Hebrew language is the Old Testament (the oldest part - “The Song of Deborah” - dates back to the 12th or 12th centuries BC, the rest of the text - to the 9th-2nd centuries BC). Since the beginning e. Hebrew, displaced from colloquial use by Aramaic, was the language of culture and religion. The revival of Hebrew began with Jewish writers and journalists of the Haskalah (Enlightenment) period in the 18th-19th centuries. You can read more about this in the article by O.B. Cohen "From the history of the revival of the Hebrew language." In the 20th century Hebrew is the official language of Israel;
3) Southern group: Arab; Amharic
- literary language of Ethiopia; tigre, tigrinnya, harari
and others - unwritten languages of Ethiopia.
2. Cushitic group
Includes Northeast African languages
1) Galla, Somalia, Beja and etc.
3. Berber group
1) Touareg, Kabyle
and etc.
Dead:
2) Libyan.
4. Chadian group
1) Hausa and etc.
5. Egyptian group (dead)
1) Ancient Egyptian, Coptic - the cult language of the Orthodox Church in Egypt.
NOTE. The Semitic-Hamitic family is sometimes divided into two groups: Semitic and Hamitic, which includes all non-Semitic languages. Some scholars believe that there is no relationship between the Semitic and Hamitic languages.
III. Caucasian language family
1) Adyghe-Abkhaz group: Abkhazian, Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardian
;
2) Nakh group: Chechen, Ingush
;
3) Dagestan group (5 written languages, 22 unwritten): Avar, Dargin, Lezgin, Lak, Tabasaran
;
4) Kartvelian group: Mingrelian, Georgian, Svan
.
IV. Finno-Ugric language family
1. Ugric group
1) Hungarian (Magyar), Mansi, Khanty ;
2. Finnish group
1) Baltic subgroup: Finnish (Suomi), Sami (Lapp), Estonian, Karelian, Izhorian, Vepsian, Votic, Livonian
;
2) Perm group: Komi-Zyryansky, Komi-Permyak
;
3) Volga group: Udmurt, Mari, Mordovian
(includes two independent languages - Erzya and Moksha
).
V. Samoyedic language family
1) Nenets, Enets, Nganasan, Selkup .
NOTE. Sometimes the Finno-Ugric and Samoyed language families are combined into a single Uralic language family with two groups: Finno-Ugric and Samoyed.
VI. Turkic language family
1) Bulgarian group: Chuvash
;
dead
- Bulgarian, Khazar
;
2) Oguz group: Turkmen, Gagauz, Turkish, Azerbaijani
;
Dead
-
Oghuz, Pecheneg
;
3) Kipchak group: Tatar, Bashkir, Karaite, Kumyk, Nogai, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Altai, Karakalpak, Karachay-Balkar, Crimean Tatar
.
Dead
-
Polovtsian, Pecheneg, Golden Horde
.
4) Karluk group: Uzbek, Uyghur
;
5) Eastern Hunnic group: Yakut, Tuvan, Khakass, Shor, Karagas
.
Dead
- Orkhon, Old Uyghur
.
VII. Mongolian language family
1) Mongolian, Buryat, Kalmyk, Mogolian (Afghanistan), Mongolian (PRC), Dakhursky (Manchuria).
VIII. Tungus-Manchu language family
1) Tunguska group: Evenki, Evenki (Lamut), Negidal Nanai, Udean, Ulch, Oroch
;
2) Manchu group: Manchurian
;
Dead
-
Jurzhensky, Sibo
.
NOTE. The Turkic, Mongolian and Tungus-Manchu language families are sometimes combined into the Altaic language family. The Altai language family sometimes includes a Japanese-Korean group (branch) with Korean and Japanese languages.
IX. Sino-Tibetan language family
1) Chinese group: Chinese, Dungan
;
2) Tibeto-Burman group: Tibetan, Burmese, Itzu, Hani, Lisu, Himalayan and Assamese languages
.
X. Dravidian language family
(languages of the pre-Indo-European population of the Hindustan Peninsula)
1) Dravidian group: Tamil, Malalayalam, Kannara
;
2) Andhra group: Telugu
;
3) Central Indian group: gondi
;
4) Language brahui
(Pakistan).
XI. Austroasiatic language family
1) Vietnamese group: Vietnamese
;
2) Mon-Khmer group: Mon, Khasi, Khmer, Senoy, Semang, Nicobar
;
3) Miao-Yao group: Miao, Yao
;
4) Munda group: munda
(India).
XII. Malayo-Polynesian language family
1) Indonesian group: Indonesian (Malay), Javanese, Sundanese, Bali, Dayak, Tagalog
(Philippines), Malagasy
(Madagascar);
2) East Ocean group: Polynesian (Maori, Hawaiian, Samoan, etc.), Micronesian, Melanesian, Papuan languages
.
XIII. Paleoasiatic language family
1) Eskimo-Aleut group: Eskimo, Aleutian
;
2) Chukotka group: Chukchi, Koryak, Kamchadal (Itelmen)
;
3) Yukagir group: Yukagir, Chuvan
;
4) Nivkh group: Nivkh
;
5) Ket group: Ket
.
Dead
-
Kott, Arin, Asan
.
Certain languages of the peoples of Eurasia,
not included in any groups
1) Japanese
;
2)
Korean
;
3)
Ainsky
;
4) Baksky
(Spain).
Dead:
5)
Sumerian
;
6)
Urartian
;
7)
Elamite
;
8)
Huttian
.
More about the classification of languages >>>
By the way, Juris Cibuls from Riga visited our website and
left a letter on the "Contacts" page in which he provided
Interesting Facts about the languages of the peoples of the world and
existing primers. You can read the letter here
Semitic family
Turkic group
Altai family
Finno-Ugric family
1. Ugric group: Hungarian, Khanty and Mansi (Khanty-Mansiysk). The territorial distance of these languages from each other is explained by history. The Hungarians (Magyars) lived in the Urals region, where the Khanty and Mansi live. At the end of the first millennium, during the era of the great migration of peoples, the Magyars moved to the territory of present-day Hungary.
2. Finnish group: Finnish, Karelian, Estonian, Mordovian, Mari, as well as Permian languages.
The Finno-Ugric family usually also includes the Samoyed languages: Nenets, Nganasan and Selkup (Ural region).
A) Bulgarian subgroup: Chuvash language, as well as dead languages: Bulgar and Khazar.
b) Oguz subgroup: Turkmen language, Trukhmen (North Caucasus), Gagauz (Moldova, northern Odessa region), Azerbaijani, Turkish. Dead languages: Oghuz and Seljuk.
V) Kipchak subgroup: Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Karakalpat, Kyrgyz. This also includes: Altai (Gorno-Altai region), Nogai (Kazakhstan), Karaite (Crimea), Kumyk (Dagestan). The dead language here is Polovtsian.
G) Chagatai subgroup: Uzbek and Uyghur (Xinjiang province, China) languages.
d) Northeast subgroup: Yakut, Tuvan, Shor (southern Kuzbass), Khakass languages. Dead, but written languages, in which there is an extensive written language, are the Yenisei-Orkhon languages.
2. Mongolian group: Buryat-Mongolian, Mongolian, Kalmyk.
3. Tungus-Manchu group: Evenki, Nanai, Udege ( Far East), Ulch and Oroch (lower Amur) languages.
Arabic, Amharic (Ethiopia), Berber languages northern Africa and Sahara, Cushitic languages of East Africa, Chadic languages (Lake Chad region). The largest among the latter (about 15 million people) is the Hausa language.
Hebrew (the official language of Israel) belongs to the Semitic family. In the Semitic family there are many ancient but dead languages: Akkadian (the language of Assyria and Babylon; monuments date back to the 3rd millennium BC), Phoenician, Aramaic, ancient Egyptian.
The living Semitic languages, ancient in origin (monuments from the 9th century BC) include the Aisor language (Caucasus, Turkey, Iran).
Compared to small area There are about 50 languages in the Caucasus, and their classification into one family (if you strictly follow the principles of genealogical classification of languages) is perhaps conditional and can be explained by the commonality of a relatively small territory. There are very small languages here, the so-called single-aul languages, which are spoken by 300-400 people living in one village. There is a legend that God collected a bag of tongues and flew over the Earth, throwing one or another tongue at it. The last place he flew over was the Caucasus. And God poured everything that was left in his bag into it. That is why there are so many languages in the Caucasus, and often different ones.
There are several groups of languages in the Caucasian family.
1. Kartvelian group: Georgian language, Mingrelian, Svan (region of Megrelia and Svaneti in Georgia).
2. Dagestan group: Avar, Dargin, Lak, Lezgin, Tabasaran, etc. Of the fifty Caucasian languages, thirty are in Dagestan.
3. Vainakh group: Chechen and Ingush.
4. Abkhaz-Adyghe group: Adyghe, Abkhaz, Balkar languages.
Albanian group
Albanian
Armenian group
Armenian language
Greek group
Greek language
Indian group
dead Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Marathi, Punjabi, Romani
Iranian group
dead Scythian, Persian, Ossetian, Tajik
Italian group
dead latin
Roman group
French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, Moldovan
German group
western subgroup: English, German, Dutch, Yiddish, Afrikaans
northern (Scandinavian) subgroup: Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Icelandic
eastern group: dead goth
Celtic group
dead Gaulish, Irish, Scottish
Baltic group
dead Prussian, Lithuanian, Latvian
Slavic group
eastern subgroup: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian
western subgroup: Polish, Czech, Slovak
southern subgroup: dead Old Church Slavonic, Bulgarian, Macedonian, Slovenian, Serbian-Croatian
Turkic language family
dead Bulgarian, dead Polovtsian, dead Khazar, Tatar, Bashkir, Kazakh, Chuvash, Crimean Tatar, Turkmen, Turkish, Azerbaijani, Uzbek, Karakalpak, Kyrgyz, Altai, Tuvan, Yakut, Khakass
Finno-Ugric language family
Baltic-Finnish group: Finnish, Estonian, Karelian
Volga group: Mari, Erzya-Mordovian, Moksha-Mordovian
Perm group: Komi-Zyrian and Komi-Permyak, Udmurt
Ugric group: Hungarian, Khanty, Mansi
Caucasian (Iberian-Caucasian) language family
Abkhaz-Adyghe group: Abkhazian, Adyghe
Kartvelian group: Georgian
Nakh-Dagestan group: Avar, Ingush, Lezgin, Chechen
Sino-Tibetan language family: Chinese, Tibetan
Mongolian language family: Buryat, Kalmyk, Mongolian
Dravidian (Dravidian) language family: Tamil, Telugu
Thai language family: Laotian,Thai
Austronesian language family: Indonesian, Malaysian
Austroasiatic (Austroasiatic) language family: Vietnamese
Samoyedic (Samoyed) language family: Nenets, Enets
Tungus-Manchu language family: Manchu, Evenki
Chukotka-Kamchatka language family: Chukchi
Semito-Hamitic (Afroasiatic) language family: Arabic, Hebrew
Niger-Congo language family: Swahili
Indian (Amerindian) language family: Aymara, Guarani, Quechua
"Isolated" languages: Korean, Japanese
There is a point of view according to which one Altai family unites Turkic, Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu languages, as well as Korean and Japanese.
Typological classification of languages
The basic principle typological, or morphological classification of languages is the provision that all languages of the world, regardless of whether they are related or not, can be divided into types according to the common features of their grammatical structure. The most developed morphological typology is represented by four types: inflectional, agglutinative, amorphous and incorporating.
1. For inflected languages characterized by widespread use inflections, expressing different grams. meanings. Inflection is most often multifunctional, i.e. expresses several grams at the same time. values. For example, in the word a country the ending -a expresses three grams at once. meanings: feminine, singular. number, im. case Inflectional languages are characterized by fusion (morphologically determined formal interpenetration of contacting morphemes, in which drawing boundaries between the stem and the affix is difficult: muzhik-muzhik). Inflection during fusion closely merges with the base: I lead - you lead - led). First of all, Indo-European languages belong to inflected languages, for which the division into synthetic And analytical. In synthetic inflectional languages, grams play a large role in the expression. meanings belongs to affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism, i.e. the forms of the words themselves. These are, for example, Russian, Lithuanian, Greek, Latin, Polish and other languages. Analytical inflectional languages are characterized by a wider use of function words, intonation, word order, i.e. gram. the meanings in them are expressed outside the word. Analytical inflectional languages are English, French, Bulgarian, Danish, Persian, etc.
2. Agglutinative languages, (from the Latin agglutinare “to stick”) are languages in which the forms consist of a number of unambiguous suffixes – stuck. Expressing gram. meaning, clings are mechanically “stuck” - the word can be used without them. The boundaries of morphemes are clearly demarcated from each other. For example, in the Tatar language the form mәktәplәrdәn (“from schools”) contains several adjectives, each of which is unambiguous: lәr - plural exponent. numbers, dәn - initial case. Agglutinative languages include Turkic, Finno-Ugric, Indian and many other languages.
3. Insulating, or amorphous, or root languages are characterized by the absence of inflection and morphological forms. Gram. relationships are expressed in them outside the word, using word order, musical stress, function words, etc. The word in them is equal to the root base. For example, Chinese words cha"tea", in"I", boo"Not", heh"drink" connected in sequence cha wo bu hae, stand for “I don’t drink tea” (literally “I don’t drink tea”). Languages of this type include Chinese, Vietnamese, etc.
4. Main structural feature incorporating(from Latin incorporare "to join"), or polysynthetic(from the Greek poly “many” + syntetikos “connection”) of languages is that the sentence in them is constructed as a compound word, i.e. words merge into one common whole, which is both a word and a sentence. For example, Chukotka youatakaanmyrkyn in one complex construction conveys Russian offer“I kill fat deer”, where You"I", ata"fat", kaa"deer", pits"kill", rkyn"do". This is the merging of words into one verbal form, which contains a whole sentence, formally conveyed by incorporation. Polysyntheticism is characteristic of Indian languages, languages of the peoples of North-East Asia - Chukchi, Koryak, etc.
Language type is a variable category, because In any language, features of other morphological types are found. Thus, the Russian language is no stranger to agglutination (for example, postfix -xia in passive voice verbs, etc.). Many languages occupy an intermediate place in the morphological classification, combining features of different types. For example, the languages of Oceania are classified as amorphous-agglutinative.
The German scientists the Schlegel brothers (Friedrich and August-Wilhelm), Wilhelm von Humboldt, A. Schleicher, the American linguist E. Sapir, the Russian academician I.I. Meshchaninov and others made a great contribution to the development of the typological classification of languages.
Caucasian languages
Geographical and historical conditions made the Caucasus region an interesting ethnographic museum. There is no other area on the globe where, comparatively, small space, such a mass of diverse and multilingual peoples would be crowded together. For many centuries, the Caucasian Isthmus served as a refuge for tribes pushed back from the north by others. Caucasian steppes - the main route from Central Asia to Europe in ancient and Middle Ages. Having once arrived in the Caucasus from the Caucasus, the tribes, pressed by others, were, so to speak, backed up to the wall and had no way out, being locked on all sides: the Azov and Black Seas blocked the path from the W, the Caspian Sea from the E, and the continuous high sea from the S. mountain ridge Similar conditions existed in the south. slope of the Caucasus. And here, from the side of Colchis, Iberia, and Armenia, the defeated tribes were driven into the mountains, having no exit either to the East or to the West. Thus, the Caucasus ridge became a “mountain of languages,” and if at present languages and dialects are counted in dozens, then in ancient times there were even more of them, since many peoples died in the fight against harsh natural conditions and with other tribes, and not a trace remained of their languages. Caucasian linguistics has come to the conclusion that between the main ancient groups of languages of the North. and south slope of the Caucasus there is no relationship. This indicates that the Caucasus range was truly a wall dividing peoples, and that natural gaps in it were rarely open to the movement of tribes. Only strong, numerous and warlike peoples managed to invade from the north. Caucasus to the south and produce from time to time. raids on fertile countries adjacent to the South of the Caucasus Range. The linguistic exploration of the Caucasus began in the 18th century, with the expeditions of Imp. acad. Sciences: academicians Gyldenstedt, Gmelin and Pallas compiled collections of words in the Caucasian mountain languages. IN early XIX centuries, the study and classification of Caucasian languages was carried out by the orientalist Julius Klaproth ("Reise in den Kaukasus und nach Georgien", with the application of a study on the Caucasian languages, 1812-1814; "Tableau historique, géograph., èthnogr. etc. du Caucase", 1827); but the materials he had at his disposal were scanty, not precise enough, and led him to some erroneous conclusions. An era in the study of K. languages is represented by the works of Academician Sjögren, who compiled the first scientific grammar of the Ossetian language ("Ossetische Sprachlehre nebst kurzem osset. deutschen u. deutsch. ossetich. Wörterbuche", St. Petersburg, 1844), academician A. Schiffner, who published several monographs on Eastern Mountain languages (Tushino, Avar, Uda) and especially the activities of Baron P.K. Uslar, who from 1861 to 1875 explored a number of mountain, hitherto almost unknown languages: Abkhazian, Chechen, Avar, Lak, Khurkilin, Kyurim and Tabasaran Academician Acad. introduced European science to the lithographed works of Baron Uslar. Schiefner, giving detailed reports about them (“Ausführliche Berichte”) on German. Recently (1887-92), Uslar's monographs (except for his research on the Tabasaran language) were published in Tiflis by the administration of the Caucasian educational district (see the corresponding article).
The languages of the Caucasian population belong to different linguistic families. The middle part of the Caucasus region in general and the west. Part of Transcaucasia is occupied by groups of peoples whose languages represent separate families that do not show any similarity in their structure and lexical composition with any other linguistic families. These are the groups: Kartvelian (otherwise Iverskaya, or Georgian), Western-Mountain and Eastern-Mountain. Other languages known in the Caucasus belong to the Indo-European and Ural-Altaic families.
I. Kartvelian group. Four languages belong to it: Georgian with its subdialects, Mingrelian, Laz and Svaneti. Linguistic studies have discovered the relationship of these languages with each other, but all attempts to find relatives of this family of languages have been unsuccessful. The Georgian language (see Georgia) is spoken by: a) Georgians themselves living in the Tiflis province. and those inhabiting Kartalinia and Kakheti, as well as the Ingiloys - Muslim Georgians living in the Zagatala district; b) Georgian mountaineers, also living in Tiflis province: Khevsurs, Pshavs and most of the inhabitants of Tusheti; c) Imeretians and Gurians (in Kutaisi province); d) Adjarians, Kobuletis and Georgians in general living in the former Batumi region. Guides for learning the Georgian language - see prof. A. Tsagareli, “On the grammatical literature of the Georgian language” (St. Petersburg, 1873). The Mingrelian language is spoken mainly by the Kartvelian population of the Kutaisi province. Grammar literature: A. Tsagareli, “Mingrelian etudes: I. Mingrelian texts with translation and explanations. II. Experience in the phonetics of the Mingrelian language” (St. Petersburg, 1880); see also: "Mingrelian texts" (in the "Collection of materials for describing the localities and tribes of the Caucasus", issue II, section II, 1890, and issue ХVIII, 1894, section I). Laz language is the dialect of Laz, occupying part of the Black Sea coast and the left bank of the lower reaches of Chorokhi in the Batumi district of Kutaisi lips. The main mass of Laz live in Turkey, in the so-called. Lazistan. The dialects of Laz and Mingrelians are closer to each other than to other languages of the Kartvelian family. The Svanetian language is spoken by a small mountain tribe living in the upper longitudinal valleys of pp. Ingura and Tskhenis-tskhali. Attempts at a grammatical study of the Svaneti language were made by P.K. Uslar (see his article in the first issue of Uslar's work: "Ethnography of the Caucasus", section II) and A. Gren (see "Collection of materials for describing localities and tribes Caucasus", issue X, 1890).
II. The Eastern Mountain group includes the languages of numerous tribes living in Dagestan, on the adjacent southern slope of the Main Range and along the northern slope of the Andean watershed. The languages of the Chechens, highlanders of Dagestan (Lezgins) and Udins belong to this group. The Chechen language is widespread within the Terek region. Different dialects of this language are spoken by the flat Chechens (in the Grozny district), mountain Chechens (in the Argun district), Aukhovtsy (in the Khasav-Yurt district) and the Ichkerins (in the Vedeno district). The Ingush, living in the Vladikavkaz district, are close in language to the Chechens, and the so-called. Kistins living in small numbers in the north of the Tionet and Dushet districts of the Tiflis province. The language of the Chechens was studied by Uslar and ak. Schiffner (see Uslar, “Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. II”, Tiflis, 1883; also included in the Russian translation of “Tchetschenzische Studien”, academician Schiffner). Closely related to Chechen is the language incorrectly called Tushinsky, or Tushsky. Actually, Tushins are called mountain Georgians who live along the upper reaches of the Andean Koisu (Tushinskaya Alazani) and partly on the southern slope of the Main Range, in the upper valley of the Kakheti Alazani. In ancient times, a small Chechen society settled among the Tushins, calling itself the Batsbi (most of these Chechens, who previously made up the Tsov society, recently moved to the Alazani Plain and settled near the village of Akhmet). The language of these Chechens, named by Academician Schiffner, following the example of Academician. Güldenstedt, incorrectly, in Tush, comes from Chechen, but over time and under the influence of Georgian it has diverged so much from it grammatically that it can no longer be considered a dialect of Chechen, but a separate language, closely related to the latter (see Schiffner, “Ueber die Thusch-Sprache ", St. Petersburg, 1856). Numerous languages of Dagestan, so-called. Lezgins show linguistic kinship among themselves. Some of them are more common, such as Avar, Kyurin, others less common (Kazikumukh, Tabasaran); There are also those that are spoken by two or three villages. All these languages represent many dialects. Despite the major works on the Eastern Mountain languages of Baron P.K. Uslar, there is no accurate information about many of the dialects of this group, just as the mutual relations of some languages classified as part of it are not clear. The most common language of Dagestan can be considered Avar, used in mutual relations by almost all multilingual Lezgin tribes and societies. Its region extends in the meridian direction across the entirety of Dagestan, occupying the lower reaches of the Andean Koisu, the Avar and Kara Koisu basins and the southern slope of the Main Range throughout almost the entire Zagatala region. The Avar population is most dense in the Gunibsky district (in central Dagestan) and in the Avar district (in western Dagestan). Materials for studying the Avar language: Schiefner, “Versuch über das Awarische” (St. Petersburg, 1862); his, "Awariscbe Texte" (in "Mémoires de l" Acad. I. des sciences de St. -P.", VII S. T. XIX, No. 6, 1873 G.); his , "Ausführ. Bericht über Bar. P. v. Uslars Awarische Studien" ( St. Petersburg, 1872); P.K. Uslar, "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. III. Avar language." (Tiflis, 1889; grammar, language education and collection of words); “Avar Tales and Songs”, collected by Aidemir Chirkeevsky (lithograph, Temir-Khan-Shura, 1867); "Avar Tales", recorded and translated by Biakai Abdulaev, in the "Collection of Materials." (XIV, department II, pp. 73-134). - Lak, or Kazikumukh, language is widespread within the Kazi-Kumukh district, although there are also villages inhabited by representatives of other languages: Avar, Turkic-Azerbaijani and others. Residents of one village, Archi, speak a special language that is close to Avar. The Lak or Kazikumukh language was studied by P.K. Uslar ("Ethnography of the Caucasus. IV. Lak language", Tiflis, 1890) and academician. Schiffner (“Ausf. Bericht über Bar. P. v. Uslars Kasikumüikische Studien” St. Petersburg, 1866). - The Kyurin language is widespread on both banks of the river. Samura in the south Dagestan, as well as in the Cuban region. Baku province and in some villages of Nukha and Elisavetpol provinces. According to the natives, the Kyurin language is similar to the dialects of the Rutulians and Tsakhurians living in the upper part of the Samur basin. On the Kurin language, see Schiefner ("Ausf. Bericht über Bar. P. v. Uslars Kürinische Studien" St. Petersburg, 1873); L.P. Zagursky, “Notes on the Kyurin language” (in the VIII issue of “Collection of information about K. highlanders”, Tiflis, 1875); book Lionidze and S. Sultanov, “Kyurinsky texts” (“Collection of materials for description, etc.” XIV, department 2). The dialects of the mountaineers of the eastern part of Dagestan, living mainly in the Darginsky district and in the border parts of Temir-Khan-Shurinsky, Kaitago-Tabasaransky and Kazi-Kumukhsky, seem to be dialects of one language that does not have a common name. In view of the highest population density speaking this language in the Dargin district, it can be called Dargin (or, according to Weidenbaum, Dargin-Kaitag). The adverbs of this anonymous language are combined (by Zagursky) into three groups: Akushinskaya (widespread in the Darginsky district), Kaitagskaya (occupying part of the Kaitago-Tabasaransky district) and Vurkunskaya (in central Dagestan). Of all these dialects, Uslar studied only one, belonging to the Kaitag group and called the Khyurkilin language. Schiffner changed this name into the Hyurkan language. See P. Uslar, "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. V. Khyurkilin language" (Tiflis, 1892); Schiefner, "Ausf. Bericht über Bar. P. v. Uslars Hürkamsche Studien" (St. Petersburg, 1871). Songs of the inhabitants of the Tsudakhar village near Gunib, speaking the Khyurkili language, were published by B. Dalgat in "Collection of materials for description, etc." (issue XIX, department 2). Language inhabitants of the village of Kubachi (in upper Kaitag), which, according to L.P. Zagursky, belongs to the Vurkun group of Dargin languages, has not yet been sufficiently studied. Tabasaran, widespread in the south, belongs to the same little-studied languages of the eastern mountain group. Dagestan, in the river basin Rubas. In the N this language comes into contact with the Kaitag dialects, in the S - with the Kyurin dialects, in the W it is adjoined by the Agul language (similar, according to some, to Tabasaran, according to others - to the Kyurinsky), and in the E its region is separated from the Caspian Sea by the coastal strip occupied by Turkic tribes. Due to the close proximity and constant relations with the latter, the Tabasarans have adopted their Azerbaijani dialect and are gradually forgetting their native language. The study of the Tabasaran language was Bar's last work. P.K. Uslar, who did not have time to finally process it grammatically during his lifetime. Uslar's work was continued by L.P. Zagursky, but also did not manage to bring it to the end. The category of peoples whose closest linguistic relationship with other eastern mountain peoples is unknown also includes: Capuchins in central Dagestan; Kryztsy, Dzhektsy, Budugtsy and Khinalugtsy (so named after the names of the villages). Dzhektsy, Kryztsy and Budugtsy (in Baku province), according to the testimony of the natives, speak dialects of the Kyurin language; The Khinalug people, according to reviews from the Kyurin people, speak a special dialect that is incomprehensible to them. Finally, the Udi language, preserved in two villages of Nukha district, is included in the Eastern Mountain group. - Vartashen and Below. The language of the Udins, or Uds, according to the study of academician. Schiffner, comes closest to Kyurin, but was strongly influenced by Tatar, and also borrowed many Armenian words, under the influence of the Armenian-Gregorian Church, to which part of the Udis belong (others are Orthodox). On the Udin language, see A. Schiefner, “Versuch über die Sprache der Uden” (St. Petersburg, 1863).
III. The languages of the Abkhazians and Circassians belong to the Western Mountain group. The Abkhaz language, which is divided into several dialects, is widespread, according to Weidenbaum, in the lowland zone between the foothills of the Main Range and the Black Sea, in an area approximately from the river. Ohuri to the Gagrinskaya Gorge. Another branch of the Abkhazians, known as the Abazins (Abaza), lives, under different names, in the southeast. parts of the Kuban region, most of all in Batalpashinsky district. Of the dialects of the Abkhaz language, one was studied: Bzyb, bar. P.K. Uslar. See him: "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. I. Abkhazian language" (Tifl., 1887); also A. Schiefner, "Ausf. Bericht über Bar. P. v. Uslars Abcbasische Studien" (St. Petersburg, 1863). Circassian language, or Adyghe language, - language. Kabardians living in the Terek region. (in Big and Small Kabarda), on the plains of the Malka basin and along the right bank of the Terek to the river. Kurpa. Other societies belonging to the Adyghe tribe live, under different names, scattered in the southern part of the Kuban region, to the northern. from the Abaza people. More numerous than the others are the Abadzekhs and Bzhedukhs; Due to the evictions to Turkey, very few Beslenivtsy and Shapsugs remained. According to the compiler of Kabardian grammar, L. G. Lopatinsky, the Adyghe language is divided into three dialects: 1) Lower Adyghe (Kyakh). There are very few representatives of this dialect left in the Circassian villages, stretched in a long strip across the Kuban; 2) Middle Adyghe, or Beslenievo, constituting a transitional stage between Lower Adyghe and Kabardian; 3) Upper Adyghe, or Kabardian, spoken by the Kabardians, the only Circassian tribe that survived intact even after the mass evictions to Turkey caused by the end of the Caucasian wars. See Lhuillier, “Russian-Circassian Dictionary, with a brief grammar” (Odessa, 1846); "Russian-Kabardian dictionary with index and brief grammar", composition. L. Lopatinsky (Tiflis, 1890); Kabardian texts with Russian translation, published by L. Lopatinsky, in "Collected materials." etc." (issue XII, 1891); P.K. Uslar, "Rough notes on the Circassian language. Ethnography of the Caucasus" (Tiflis 1887, I, section II). The language of the Ubykhs, who formerly occupied part of the Black Sea coast, approximately between the Khosta and Shakhe rivers, but then almost entirely went to Turkey, also belongs to the Western Mountain group. For the Ubykh language, see "Brief notes" by Uslar, in "Ethnography of the Caucasus. Linguistics. I" (1887, section II). In general, the mutual kinship relations of the languages that make up the Eastern Highland and Western languages. groups are still far from being understood by science. The study of these languages is hampered by their sounds, the articulation of which is difficult for non-natives, and by the peculiar grammatical structure, different from the structure of Indo-European languages. Moreover, mountain languages fall into many dialects and dialects. The famous linguist Friedrich Müller, who studied the structure of some Caucasian languages according to the works of Schiffner, proposes the following classification: A) North Caucasian languages: 1) Abkhazian and Circassian, 2) Avar, Kazikumukh Archian, Khyurkan (Khyurkilinsky), Kyurinsky, Udinsky, Chechen. B) South Caucasian languages: Georgian, Mingrelian, Laz, Svaneti. The South Caucasian languages represent a group that can be called a linguistic family; but the North Caucasian cannot be called one family, due to their significant differences between themselves both in formal and lexical terms, although there are also major similarities between them, for example. in the designation of genders, cases, in some conjugation features, etc. The relationship between the North Caucasian and South Caucasian languages is still an open question (see. Fr. Müller, "Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft", III t., II department, V., 1887). The languages of the Caucasus, which are not part of the Kartvelian family and both groups of East Mountain and West Mountain, belong to the Indo-European and Ural-Altaic families. The Indo-European family, specifically its Iranian branch, includes: a) the Ossetian language, spoken by Ossetians living in the Terek region, in the central part of the Caucasus ridge, in valleys irrigated partly by the middle course of the Terek and its tributaries on the left side. Some of these people live on the other side of the ridge, in the upper reaches of Liakhva, Ksanka, Rion, in Tiflis and Kutaisi provinces. Of the modern living Iranian languages, Ossetian has preserved the most antiquity in its phonetics and morphology. Ossetians on the northern side of the ridge speak two dialects: Iron (Tagaur) and Digor. The dialect of the Transcaucasian Ossetians is a subdialect of Iron (see Vs. Miller, “Ossetian Etudes”, M., 1881-1887, where all the literature on the study of this language is given), b) the Tat language is a dialect close to New Persian; Tats live mainly in the Baku province, especially in the Baku and Kubinsky districts. as well as in southern Dagestan - in the Kaytago-Tabasaran district. See E. Veg ezine, "Kecberches sur les dialectes persans"; Dorn u. Mirza-Schafy, "Beitr. zur Kenntniss der Iranischen Sprachen" ( Part I, St. Petersburg, 1860). Subdialect of the Tat language. represents the Caucasian language. Mountain Jews (see Mountain Jews). Materials for studying the Jewish-Tat language (texts and dictionary) were published by V. F. Miller (St. Petersburg, 1892); c) Persian language, spoken by Persians living in the Baku province, in Tiflis and in the cities of the Terek region. d) The Talyshin language, representing one of the Persian dialects, is widespread in the Lenkoran region. (see Riess, “About the Talyshin people, their way of life and language,” in “Notes of the Caucasian Department. I.R. Geogr. General.”, 1855, book III). e) Kurdish language, although close to New Persian, but has the right to the name independent language. Kurds live in the south of Transcaucasia, mainly in Erivan province, Kars region. and some districts of Elisavetpol. There are two dialects in the Kurdish language: Kurmanji and Zaza. The first dialect belongs to the Kurds living within Russia. On the language of the Kurds, see P. Lerch, “Research on the Iranian Kurds” (St. Petersburg, 1857); A. Chodzko, “Etudes philologiques sur la langue kurde” (Par., 1857); A, Saba, "Dictionnaire kurde-français" (St. Petersburg, 1879); F. Justi, "Kurdische Grammatik" (1880); S. Egiazarov, “Kurmandzhi texts” (in the XIII book “Western Caucasus. Department of I.R. Geogr. General.”, 2nd issue, Tiflis, 1884); L.P. Zagursky (together with S. Egiazarov), “Kurmandzhi-Russian and Russian-Kurmandzhi dictionaries” (in the XII book “West. Caucasus. Department. Imperial Russian. Geogr. General.”, issue 2). - The Armenian language belongs to the Indo-European family, but to a separate branch of it, the different dialects of which are spoken by Armenians in their lips. Erivan, Elisavetpol, Baku, region. Kars and in many cities of the Caucasus region. Not all subdialects and dialects of the living Armenian language in the Caucasus have been sufficiently studied. See K. Patkanov, “Research on the dialects of the Armenian language” (St. Petersburg, 1869); A. Thomson, "Linguistic Research. Essay on the Akhaltsikhe dialect" (I, 1887); his, “Historical Grammar of the Modern Armenian Language of Tiflis” (St. Petersburg, 1890). Modern Greek is spoken by Greeks living in separate villages in Tiflis province, the Black Sea region and Kars region. To the north In the Caucasus there are Greek settlements in the Kuban region. and Stavropol province. In addition to the listed languages, the Indo-European family in the Caucasus is also represented by the languages Russian, Polish, Czech (in the Black Sea region), Lithuanian, German and Moldavian (in the Black Sea region). The peoples of the Mongolian race in the Caucasus belong to two branches of the Ural-Altaic family of languages: Mongolian and Turko-Tatar. Representatives of the first are the Kalmyks, nomadic in the steppes of the Stavropol province. to the south from V. Manych (Bolshederbetovsky ulus). Some Kalmyks wander from time to time in the steppes to the left. bank of the Terek, in the Grozny district. peoples, speaking in tongues Turkic-Tatar family in the Caucasus can be divided into 2 groups: a) Turkic peoples living in the north. Caucasus, and b) Transcaucasian Turkic peoples. The first group includes the following languages: a) Nogai, which is spoken by the Nogais living between pp. Kuma and Terek and at the mouth of Sulak; in addition, their small settlements are located near Pyatigorsk and at the confluence of Zelenchuk and Kuban; b) Trukhmen - the language of the Trukhmen (Trukhmyan, Turkmen), nomadic in the Stavropol province. at the lower reaches of Kalaus and Kuma; c) Karachay, very close to Nogai, is the language of the Turkic highlanders living at the headwaters of the Kuban and the rivers flowing into the Kuban; d) language so-called. Mountain, or Kabardian, Tatars, close to Karachay and Nogai. Mountain societies speaking this language: Balkars (or Malkars), Bizings and Khulams (in the upper reaches of the Cherek), Chegems (in the gorge of the Chegem River) and Ursubians (in the gorge of the Baksan River); e) Kumyk - the language of the Kumyks occupying the northern part of the Dagestan coast of the Caspian Sea approximately from the mouth of the Terek to Derbent. The Kumyk language, close to the Nogai language, can be judged from Kumyk texts, ed. in "Collected mat. etc." (issue XVII, department III, 1893; in the same place - “Russian-Kumyk Dictionary” by M. G. Afanasyev and “Kumyk-Russian Dictionary” by M. V. Mokhir). The Transcaucasian Turkic languages include: a) the so-called language. Aderbeijan Tatars, who make up the bulk of the population of the eastern half of Transcaucasia. This Turkic dialect, heavily influenced by the Persian language, is called Aderbeijan after the name of the Persian province bordering Transcaucasia. Simplicity and accessibility have made this dialect an international language for the entire eastern Transcaucasia: b) the language of the Turks (Ottomans) living in the southwestern part of Transcaucasia, namely in the Kars region, Artvinsky and Batumi districts, Akhaltsikhe and Akhalkadak districts; c) the language of the Turkmens (Tarakamans); this Turkic people, different in dialect from the Ottoman Turks, came from Turkey and live in several villages in the Kars region. and Akhaltsikhe district; d) the language of the Karapapakhs, as the Transcaucasian Tatars who moved to the Kars region are called. from the border provinces of Transcaucasia. A scientific study of the majority of Turkic-Tatar languages of the Caucasus does not yet exist. The only representative of the Finnish branch in the Caucasus is the language of the Estonians, who only recently settled in small numbers in Aleksandrovsky district. Stavropol province. and in the Black Sea region. To the Indian branch Indo-European family include the dialects of K. gypsies, settled and wandering, known in the region under the names Bosha and Karachi. About their language, see K. P. Patkanov, “Gypsies. A few words about the dialects of Transcaucasian gypsies: Bosha and Karachi” (St. Petersburg, 1887). On the classification of Caucasian peoples by language, in addition to the works mentioned above, see also: L. P. Zagursky, “Ethnological classification of Caucasian peoples” (appendix to the “Caucasian Calendar” for 1888); E. G. Veidenbaum. "Guide to the Caucasus". Dept. I: "Essay on Ethnography" (Tiflis, 1888).
Genealogical classification of non-Indo-European languages.
Genealogical classification of Indo-European languages.
The essence of the genealogical classification of languages.
Linguists classify languages according to a variety of criteria. For example, you can divide languages by the number of people speaking them. Then Arabic, Indonesian and Portuguese will fall into one group (each of them is spoken by more than 100 million people), Khmer in Cambodia, Danish, Albanian and Georgian (more than 3 million people) will fall into another group, and the third?? Tabasaran languages in Dagestan, Ojibwe in Canada and the USA (less than 100 thousand people? population of a small town).
There is a classification of languages according to their public function: whether the language is used as a state, official, or not. On this basis, for example, English and Indian languages in the USA will differ. Such classifications are needed primarily in sociolinguistics.
Languages are divided taking into account their internal, actually linguistic features, for example, into consonantal and vocalic, depending on which phonemes are more numerous - consonants or vowels. The consonantal languages include the Ubykh language, which recently existed in Turkey and is related to Abkhazian. It had 80 consonant phonemes and only two vowels. Danish is a vocal language, in which there are 37 vowels for 19 consonant phonemes. Or languages are divided into having cases And not having them. The first group includes Russian, Latin, Finnish, Georgian, Tatar, Nivkh languages. In the second - Chinese, Hawaiian, Tajik, Abkhazian, Bulgarian, French, English. In some languages, suffixes predominate (Russian, Latin), in others, prefixes (Khmer, many African).
In some languages, sentences are constructed:
according to the scheme “subject – predicate – object» (Russian, French, Finnish, Chinese);
in others - “subject – object – predicate”(Hindi, Armenian, Tatar, Basque);
Thirdly - “predicate – subject – object”(Irish, Indonesian, Arabic, Hawaiian).
Similar classifications belong to the field of linguistic typology. The purpose of typological research is to identify the most common and important properties of languages.
Typological classification of languages is opposed to classification genetic, or genealogical(from the word genealogy- “the doctrine of origin, pedigree”) . Genealogical classification is based on the concept linguistic relationship, that is, the common origin of languages (A. Zhuravlev, 1998, pp. 409–410).
Even before the typological classification of languages arose, scientists came to the conclusion that it was necessary to group languages depending on their origin. To determine the location of the tongue, according to genealogical classification of languages more details
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it must be compared with other related languages of the same family and with their common parent language (which is usually known only on the basis of reconstructions made by comparing all these languages with each other) by means of the comparative-historical method.
The most reliable results in the genealogical classification of languages are obtained by comparing morphological indicators, the ease of comparison of which is determined by two reasons of a semantic and morphonological nature. Firstly, when comparing morphological indicators, there is a limited set of possible grammatical meanings in all languages of the world and their exceptional stability with the clarity of possible semantic changes, subject to strict rules. Thus, a morph denoting mood and aspect can acquire the meaning of time. Secondly, according to the principle of morphonological character, of all the phonemes of each language, a relatively small part of them is used in endings. This makes it easier to establish correspondences between languages, especially in cases in which the matching forms are derived from
identical roots and the correspondence extends to the entire word form.
More complex is the use for genealogical classification of languages. vocabulary correspondences between languages. In such areas of vocabulary as numerals, it is possible to borrow lexical groups from one language to another. And this does not make it possible to draw a conclusion about the inclusion of a language in a given family, even if there is a system of vocabulary correspondences that obey certain rules (Vyach. Vs. Ivanov, 1998, p. 94).
Comparison languages allows you to look into them history. The similarity of languages indicates their common origin. No wonder one of key concepts and terms in the genealogical classification of languages is language family: The more similar languages are, the more likely it is that they had a common ancestor.
Such facts have long attracted the attention of scientists. But absolutely dizzying discoveries were made in the middle of the 18th century, when texts written in Sanskrit.
English orientalist W. Jones, who worked for many years in India, noticed that many words in Sanskrit resemble words in European languages. Indeed, let's compare: Sun in Sanskrit – svar, Brother– bhratar, three– tri. Scientists have concluded: there once was a language common to the ancestors of modern European and Indian peoples. This language was called Proto-Indo-European.
The best philological minds of the 18th–19th centuries. formed the first scientific method linguistics – comparative-historical. This is a system of research techniques used in the study of related languages to restore a picture of the historical past of languages and the patterns of their development.
At the origins of the genealogical classification of languages are the founding scientists of comparative historical linguistics. Franz Bopp(1791–1867) at work "On the conjugation system of Sanskrit in comparison with the conjugation in Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic languages" pointed out the need for a systematic comparison of grammatical forms. Rasmus Rask(1787–1832), dealing with the origins of the Icelandic language, proved using factual material the kinship of the Germanic, Latin, Greek, Lithuanian and Slavic languages. Jacob Grimm(1785–1863) studied the history of Germanic languages using the comparative historical method.
In general, the most important result of the comparative historical method was not the restoration of the proto-language system (although dictionaries and grammars of the Indo-European proto-language and even experimental texts written in it have now been created), but the enrichment of the body of knowledge about the history of mankind. Information about the genesis of individual peoples, their contacts and movements, the establishment of general patterns of linguistic evolution, and finally, the creation of a genealogical classification of languages - all this would have been impossible without the use of the comparative historical method (B.Yu. Norman, 2004, pp. 257–258) .
Genealogical classification involves the division of all the languages of the world into huge associations - families. So, A.M. Kamchatov, N.A. Nikolina The following language families are distinguished:
1) Indo-European;
2) Semitic-Hamitic;
3) Caucasian;
4) Ural;
5) Turkic;
6) Mongolian;
7) Tungus-Manchu;
8) Chinese-Tibetan;
9) Malayo-Polynesian;
10) Paleo-Asian;
11) Eskimo;
12) African;
13) Indian.
In addition, there are languages whose belonging to any family cannot be established (A.M. Kamchatov, N.A. Nikolina, 2006, p. 202). Each family is divided into branches, groups And subgroups.
Through the efforts of several generations of scientists, an Indo-European linguistic community was established, called Indo-European language family. Due to the varying degrees of proximity of languages, they are divided into series of branches, which in turn are divided into groups. The languages included in the groups are divided into dialects.
Let's consider the most complete classification of Indo-European languages A.A. Reformatsky:
Indo-European languages the scientist divides into the following groups.
1. Indian group(over 96 living languages in total):
1) Hindi and Urdu (sometimes combined under the common name Hindustani) - two varieties of one modern Indian literary language: Urdu is the state language of Pakistan, written on the basis of the Arabic alphabet; Hindi (the official language of India) - based on the Old Indian Devanagari script;
2) Bengali;
3) Punjabi;
4) lahnda (lendi);
5) Sindhi;
6) Rajasthani;
7) Gujarati;
8) mrathi;
9) Sinhala;
10) Nepali (eastern Pahari, in Nepal);
11) Bihari;
12) Oriya. (otherwise: audrey, utkali, in eastern India);
13) Assamese;
14) gypsy, which emerged as a result of resettlement and migration in the 5th–10th centuries. AD;
15) Kashmiri and other Dardic languages.
16) Vedic - the language of the most ancient sacred books of the Indians - the Vedas, which were formed in the first half of 2 thousand BC. (recorded later);
17) Sanskrit. The “classical” literary language of the Indians from the 3rd century. BC. to the 7th century AD (literally samskrta means "processed", as opposed to prakrta "not normalized" colloquial); There remains a rich literature in Sanskrit, religious and secular (epic, drama);
18) Pali - Central Indian literary and cult language of the medieval era;
19) Prakrits - various colloquial Central Indian dialects, from which modern Indian languages originated; replicas of minor persons in Sanskrit drama are written in Prakrits.
2. Iranian group(more than 10 languages; the greatest affinity is found with the Indian group, with which it unites into a common Indo-Iranian, or Aryan, group):
1) Persian (Farsi) - writing based on the Arabic alphabet;
2) Dari (Farsi-Kabuli)? the literary language of Afghanistan, along with Pashto;
3) Pashto (Pashto, Afghan) ? literary language, from the 30s. the official language of Afghanistan;
4) Baluchi (Baluchi);
5) Tajik;
6) Kurdish;
7) Ossetian; Ossetians - descendants of the Alans-Scythians;
8) Talysh;
10) Caspian (Gilan, Mazanderan) dialects;
11) Pamir languages (Shugnan, Rushan, Bartang, Capykol, Khuf, Oroshor, Yazgulyam, Ishkashim, Wakhan) - unwritten languages of the Pamirs;
12) Yaghnobi.
13) Old Persian, Avestan, etc. More details
3. Slavic group.
A. Eastern subgroup.
1. Russian; adverbs: northern (Great) Russian – “pouring” and southern (Great) Russian – “accharging”. The Russian literary language developed on the basis of the transitional dialects of Moscow and its environs, where from the south and southeast the Tula, Kursk, Oryol and Ryazan dialects spread features that were alien to the northern dialects, which were the dialectal basis of the Moscow dialect, and displaced some of the latter’s features, as well as by mastering the elements of the Church Slavonic literary language. In addition, in the Russian literary language in the 16th–18th centuries. various foreign language elements were included. Writing is based on the Russian alphabet, revised from the Slavic alphabet - the “Cyrillic alphabet” under Peter the Great; The oldest monuments are from the 11th century. (they also apply to the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages); official language Russian Federation, an interethnic language for communication between the peoples of the Russian Federation and adjacent territories former USSR, one of the world languages.
2. Ukrainian or Ukrainian; before the revolution of 1917 - Little Russian or Little Russian; three main dialects: northern, southeastern, southwestern. The literary language began to take shape in the 14th century; the modern literary language has existed since the end of the 18th century. based on the Dnieper dialects of the southeastern dialect. Writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet in its post-Petrine variety.
3. Belarusian; writing since the 14th century. based on the Cyrillic alphabet. Dialects – northeastern and southwestern; literary language - based on Central Belarusian dialects.
B. Southern subgroup.
4. Bulgarian - formed in the process of contact of Slavic dialects with the language of the Kama Bulgars, from which it received its name. Writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet; The oldest monuments are from the 10th century. AD
5. Macedonian.
6. Serbo-Croatian; The Serbs have a letter based on the Cyrillic alphabet, the Croats have a letter based on Latin; The oldest monuments are from the 12th century.
7. Slovenian (writing is based on the Latin alphabet; the oldest monuments are from the 10th–11th centuries).
8. Old Church Slavonic is the common literary language of the Slavs of the medieval period, which arose on the basis of Thessalonica dialects of the ancient Bulgarian language in connection with the introduction of writing for the Slavs (two alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic) and the translation of church books to promote Christianity among the Slavs in the 9th–10th centuries. AD Among the Western Slavs it was supplanted by Latin due to Western influence and the transition to Catholicism; in the form of Church Slavonic - an integral element of the Russian literary language.
IN. Western subgroup.
9. Czech; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 13th century.
10. Slovak; writing based on the Latin alphabet. Polish; writing based on the Latin alphabet; the most ancient monuments from the 14th century.
12. Kashubian; lost its independence and became a dialect of the Polish language.
13. Lusatian (abroad: Sorabian, Vendian); two variants: Upper Sorbian (or eastern) and Lower Sorbian (or western); writing is based on the Latin alphabet.
14. Polabsky - became extinct in the 18th century, was distributed on both banks of the river. Labs (Elbe) in Germany.
15. Pomeranian dialects; became extinct in medieval period in connection with forced Germanization; were distributed along the southern coast of the Baltic Sea in Pomerania (Pomerania). More details
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4. Baltic group:
1) Lithuanian; writing - based on the Latin alphabet; monuments – from the 14th century;
2) Latvian; writing - based on the Latin alphabet; monuments – from the 14th century;
3) Latgalian.
4) Prussian - died out in the 17th century. in connection with forced Germanization; territory of former East Prussia; monuments – XIV–XVII centuries;
5) Yatvingian, Curonian and other languages in the territory of Lithuania and Latvia, extinct by the 17th–18th centuries.
5. German group.
A. North Germanic (Scandinavian) subgroup.
1. Danish; writing - based on the Latin alphabet; served as a literary language for Norway until the end of the 19th century.
2. Swedish; writing is based on the Latin alphabet.
3. Norwegian; writing - based on the Latin alphabet, originally Danish, since the literary language of the Norwegians until the end of the 19th century. was Danish. In modern Norway there are two forms of the literary language: Riksmål (otherwise: Bokmål) - bookish, closer to Danish, Ilansmål (otherwise: Nynorsk), closer to the Norwegian dialects.
4. Icelandic; writing - based on the Latin alphabet; written monuments - from the 13th century. (“sagas”)
5. Faroese.
B. West German subgroup.
6. English; literary English developed in the 16th century. AD based on the London dialect. In the V–XI centuries. – Old English (or Anglo-Saxon), XI–XVI centuries. - Middle English and from the 16th century. - New England. Writing - based on the Latin alphabet (no changes); written monuments – from the 7th century; world language, language of international significance.
7. Dutch (Dutch) with Flemish; writing - on a Latin basis; In the Republic of South Africa live the Boers, immigrants from Holland, who speak a variety of the Dutch language, the Boer language (otherwise: Afrikaans).
8. Frisian; written monuments - from the 14th century.
9. German; two dialects: Low German (northern, Niederdeutsch or Plattdeutsch) and High German (southern, Hochdeutsch). The literary language was formed on the basis of southern German dialects, but with many northern features (especially in pronunciation), but still does not represent unity. In the VIII–XI centuries. – Old High German, in the XII–XV centuries. – Middle High German, from the 16th century. - New High German, developed in the Saxon offices and translations of Luther and his associates. Writing is based on the Latin alphabet in two varieties: Gothic and Antiqua; one of the largest languages in the world.
10. Yiddish (or Yiddish, New Hebrew) - various High German dialects mixed with elements of Hebrew, Slavic and other languages.
IN. East German subgroup.
11. Gothic.
12. Burgundian, Vandal, Gepid, Herulian - the languages of the ancient Germanic tribes in East Germany.
6. Roman group(before the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of Romance languages - Italic).
1. French. The literary language developed by the 16th century. based on the Ile-de-France dialect centered on Paris. French dialects were formed at the beginning of the Middle Ages as a result of crossing the folk (vulgar) Latin of the Roman conquerors and the language of the conquered native Gauls - Gallic. Writing is based on the Latin alphabet; The oldest monuments date from the 9th century. AD Middle French period - from the 9th to the 15th centuries, New French - from the 16th century. The French language acquired international significance before other European languages.
2. Provençal (Occitan); minority language of south-eastern France (Provence); as a literary one existed in the Middle Ages (lyrics of the troubadours) and survived until the end of the 19th century.
3. Italian; the literary language developed on the basis of Tuscan dialects, in particular the dialect of Florence, which arose due to the crossing of vulgar Latin with the languages of the mixed population of medieval Italy; written in the Latin alphabet, historically the first national language in Europe.
4. Sardinian (or Sardinian).
5. Spanish; developed in Europe as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin with the languages of the native population of the Roman province of Iberia; writing - based on the Latin alphabet (refers to Catalan and Portuguese).
6. Galician.
7. Catalan.
8. Portuguese.
9. Romanian; developed as a result of crossing folk (vulgar) Latin and the languages of the natives of the Roman province of Dacia; writing is based on the Latin alphabet.
10. Moldavian (a variety of Romanian); writing is based on the Russian alphabet.
11. Macedonian-Romanian (Aromanian).
12. Romansh is a language of a national minority; Since 1938 it has been recognized as one of the four official languages of Switzerland.
13. Creole languages – crossed Romance languages with local languages (Haitian, Mauritian, Seychelles, Senegalese, Papiamento, etc.).
Dead (Italian):
14. Latin - the literary state language of Rome in the republican and imperial era (III century BC - first centuries of the Middle Ages); the language of rich literary monuments, epic, lyrical and dramatic, historical prose, legal documents and oratory; The oldest monuments are from the 6th century. BC.; The first description of the Latin language was given by Varro in the 1st century. BC.; classical grammar of Donatus – 4th century. AD; literary language of the Western European Middle Ages and language catholic church; along with ancient Greek, it is a source of international terminology.
15. Medieval Vulgar Latin - folk Latin dialects of the early Middle Ages, which, when crossed with the native languages of the Roman provinces of Gaul, Iberia, Dacia, etc. gave birth to Romance languages: French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian, etc.
16. Oscan, Umbrian, Sabelian and other Italic dialects were preserved in fragmentary written monuments of the last centuries BC.
7. Celtic group.
A. Goidelic subgroup.
1. Irish; written monuments - from the 4th century. AD (Ogham writing) and from the 7th century. (Latin based); is still literary today.
2. Scottish (Gaelic).
3. Manx is the language of the Isle of Man (in the Irish Sea).
B. Brythonic subgroup.
4. Breton; Bretons (formerly Britons) moved after the arrival of the Anglo-Saxons from the British Isles to the continent of Europe.
5. Welsh (Welsh).
6. Cornish; in Cornwall, a peninsula in southwest England.
B. Gallic subgroup.
7. Gallic; extinct since the formation of the French language; was widespread in Gaul, Northern Italy, the Balkans and even Asia Minor.
8. Greek group:
1) modern Greek, from the 12th century.
2) ancient Greek, X century. BC. – V century AD;
3) Central Greek, or Byzantine, is the state literary language of Byzantium from the first centuries AD. until the 15th century; the language of historical, religious and artistic monuments. More details
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9. Albanian group.
Albanian, written monuments - based on the Latin alphabet from the 15th century.
10. Armenian group.
Armenian; literary from the 5th century AD; contains some elements dating back to Caucasian languages; The ancient Armenian language - Grabar - is very different from the modern living Ashkharabar. The Armenian letter was created at the beginning of the 5th century. Mesrop Mashtots using some principles of Greek writing and, possibly, Aramaic.
11. Hittite-Luwian (Anatolian) group.
1) Hittite; Hittite-Nesite, known from cuneiform monuments of the 18th–13th centuries. BC.; language of the Hittite state in Asia Minor;
2) Luwian in Asia Minor (XIV–XIII centuries BC);
3) Palayan in Asia Minor (XIV–XIII centuries BC);
4) Carian;
5) Lydian – Anatolian languages of ancient times;
6) Lycian.
12. Tocharian group.
1) Tocharian A (Turfan, Karashar) - in Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang);
2) Tocharian B (Kuchansky) – in the same place; in Kucha until the 7th century. AD Known from manuscripts around the 5th–8th centuries. AD based on the Indian Brahmi script discovered during excavations in the 20th century. (A.A. Reformatsky, 1997, pp. 411–422). More details
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The Indo-European language family is the largest, numbering over 150 languages.
A.A. In addition to Indo-European, Reformed names the following language families:
A. Western group: Abkhaz-Adyghe languages.
1. Abkhazian subgroup.
Abkhazian; dialects: Bzyb - northern and Abzhuy (or Kadbr) - southern; writing - until 1954, based on the Georgian alphabet, then - on a Russian basis.
Abaza; writing is based on the Russian alphabet.
2. Circassian subgroup.
Adyghe.
Kabardian (Kabardino-Circassian).
Ubykh (Ubykhs emigrated to Turkey under tsarism).
B. Eastern group: Nakh-Dagestan languages.
1. Nakh subgroup.
Chechen; have a written language based on Russian.
Ingush.
Batsbiysky (Tsova-Tushinsky).
2. Dagestan subgroup.
Avarsky.
Darginsky.
Lezginsky.
Tabasaran.
These five languages are written on Russian basis. The rest of the languages are unwritten.
3. Southern subgroup: Kartvelian (Iberian) languages.
1) Megrelian.
2) Lazsky (Chansky).
3) Georgian: written in the Georgian alphabet from the 5th century. AD, rich literary monuments of the Middle Ages; dialects: Khevsur, Kartli, Imeretian, Gurian, Kakheti, Adjarian, etc.
4) Svansky.
Outside the group - Basque
