China has a long and virtually uninterrupted history spanning some six thousand years. Written sources, however, testify to a slightly lower age - 3600 years. China has given mankind many inventions, including gunpowder, the compass, paper, and typesetting. Until the 19th century, China was one of the most advanced world states and the main cultural center of East Asia. Later, the country survived centuries of colonial conquest, but was able to once again become a powerful, independent industrial power.

Short review

It is believed that people lived in China already 7 million years ago. And the first Chinese dynasty - the Xia - began to rule as early as 2700 BC. All subsequent periods are associated with the rule in the country of different dynasties, successively replacing one another. To facilitate the perception of all Chinese history, the following periodization is used, based on traditional Han historiography:

1. Pre-imperial China (Xia, Shang, Zhou - before 221 BC)
2. Imperial China (Qin - Qing)
3. New China (1911 - present)

First Emperor Shi Huangdi- united China under his rule, dividing the newly formed empire Qin(221-206 BC) into 36 provinces governed by officials appointed by the emperor. He announced the end of all wars, collected weapons from his subjects and melted them down, building 12 large monuments. He streamlined measures and weights, introduced a standard spelling of hieroglyphs, and organized a rigid bureaucratic management system. During the reign of Shi Huangdi, the construction of the Great Wall of China began. A network of roads 15 meters wide and 7,500 kilometers long connected the country.

The second empire in the history of China, called Han(206 BC-220 AD), founded by a native of the middle bureaucracy Liu Bang. This period is considered one of the most important periods in the history of China, the Chinese themselves took their self-name from here (Han).

Epochs Tan(618-907) and soong(960-1127) is usually called the classical period in the history of China.
During the Tang period, a system of state examinations was formed. They contributed to the education of an educated elite, since a candidate who knew the classical texts well, regardless of social background, was able to take the rank of official. People of the humanities - writers, philosophers, scientists - were people of a privileged class.
The Song period is considered the era of China's economic and cultural prosperity. The number of cities is growing, the urban population continues to grow, Chinese artisans reach heights in the manufacture of products from porcelain, silk, lacquer, wood, ivory, etc.

At the beginning of the XIII century, the Mongols united under the rule of Genghis Khan invade China. They were expelled in the middle of the 14th century after a long struggle. One of the leaders of the uprising came to power - the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the state Min(1368-1644)

Dynasty Qing(1644-1911), created by conquering nomads from Manchuria, built the last empire, expanding the country's territory as much as possible. By the middle of the 19th century, China's population had grown to about 400 million, but the administrative and financial system was grossly inefficient, setting the stage for future troubles and crises. Corruption was widespread, the ruling elite did not want reforms. After a series of defeats in the Opium Wars, China was forced to conclude unequal treaties with European powers, opening its markets and transferring major ports to foreign control.

The Manchu dynasty was overthrown as a result Xinhai Revolution(1911). The Qing Empire collapsed and the Republic of China was proclaimed. In 1912, with the support of the United States and Japan, the Kuomintang Revolutionary Party was created. And in 1921, with the support of the Russian organizations of the Comintern, the Communist Party of China was created. Since 1927, armed clashes began between the Kuomintang and the CPC, resulting in a civil war. In the 1930s, the Japanese intervention began, interrupting the conflict for some time. After the defeat of Japan in 1945, the war between the Kuomintang and the CCP resumed. By 1949, the CCP army had taken control of most of the country.

October 1, 1949 was proclaimed formation of the People's Republic of China. Chairman of the Communist Party of China Mao Zedong solemnly announced this from the podium in Tiananmen Square. The next day, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the PRC and concluded a Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance with it.

Rise of Chinese Civilization

Yangshao culture

This focus of the agricultural Neolithic arose in the Yellow River basin around the 6th-5th millennium BC. e. The ancient Chinese Neolithic was characterized by Near Eastern cereals (wheat, barley) and livestock breeds (cow, sheep, goat), the potter's wheel and other innovations, by that time already well known to the west of China. Painted pottery and skills in growing crops, familiarity with the domestication of livestock (pig), allow you to connect the Yangshao culture with similar cultures of painted pottery, in particular the Middle East. This is not about influence in the form of mass migration. Mongoloids were the predominant racial type on the ancient Chinese plain from ancient times (interspersed with Caucasoid-Australoid racial types are rare), and this is what distinguishes the ancient Chinese center of civilization.

Bronze Age in China

The beginning of the Bronze Age has been recorded by archaeologists from the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. At the end of the Neolithic era, a fairly developed bronze culture appeared in the Longshan-Lunshanoid Neolithic environment of the Huang He basin farmers. shang yin. It can be assumed that the civilization of the Bronze Age in China, again, owes much to cultural influences from outside. This is evidenced by the high rates of emergence and flourishing of the Bronze Age: the development of bronze casting, the emergence of writing, the construction of magnificent palaces and the construction of tombs, the art of stone carving, the decoration of utensils, jewelry, and weapons. The connection between civilizations is most convincingly evidenced by the Yin war chariots, which are identical to those of the Indo-Europeans. Pre-Yin China knew neither horses nor chariots. Thus, the Indo-European tribes could play a certain role in the process of the genesis of Chinese civilization. At the same time, the Yin people were also Mongoloids, so again it is difficult to talk about migrations on a significant scale.

Ancient China. pre-imperial period.

The ancient Chinese historiographic tradition begins the history of China with a description of the reign of five legendary emperors. The time of their dominion is perceived as a golden age of wisdom, justice and virtue. Sage Yao handed over his throne to the able and virtuous Shunyu, and that one to the great Yuyu, since the reign of which power began to be inherited. Yu is considered the founder of the first dynasty Xia. The Chinese historiographic tradition believes that the Xia dynasty ruled China at the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. e. Its last unvirtuous representative, Jie, lost his authority and therefore lost the moral right to rule the Celestial Empire. He was defeated by the virtuous Cheng Tanom who founded a new dynasty yin.

There are reasons to believe that no Xia existed at all. When the first Yin traditions were recorded, the term Xia denoted the totality of Chinese lands and population. It is possible that the invasion of the Yin into the Huang He basin over time was interpreted as replacing one (Xia) with another (Yin).

The Yin community settled in the Anyang region. A large proto-state headed by an all-powerful ruler quickly developed here. The ruler-van was at the same time the high priest. The position became hereditary under the last four rulers. The administration was divided into three main categories - senior administrators-dignitaries, lower officials-managers, officials responsible for military training and hunting. The van and his entourage had to take care of the harvest, preparing and clearing the fields. song book Shijing mentions large fields cultivated by groups of peasants under the control of overseers. All handicraft products were also used in a centralized manner. A similar model was in the royal temple households of Ancient Egypt or Mesopotamia.

The most important source of the Shang-Yin era are divinatory inscriptions on specially processed mutton shoulder blades and tortoise shells. In total, more than 150 thousand such inscriptions were discovered. Apparently, the Yin people lived in a compact community of fellow tribesmen, united by a joint ritual and cult practice, sacrifices in honor of their common ancestors, deities and spirits. It is known that the Yin people practiced human sacrifices from among their captured neighbors. The rite of communication with the dead vans and ancestors was of great importance. According to the Yin people, the existence of the collective depended on their will and support. Informing their ancestors about the situation and current problems, turning to them with requests, the Yin people wrote down the essence of the matter on the bones and performed the rite of divination.

The Yin people pursued an active foreign policy, including wars and the expansion of their territories at the expense of their neighbors. The Yin people reached their greatest power under Wu Ding. Armed with war chariots, professional archers and spearmen, the Yin army was a formidable force that kept its neighbors in check.

These neighbors included Zhou people who lived west of Shan-Yin. Their capital was Zongzhou. The Zhou rulers recognized the suzerainty of the Yin Wang. Over time, they managed to strengthen themselves and then create a coalition of tribes, which ultimately defeated Shang-Yin in the decisive battle of Mue in 1027 BC. e. The new ruler of ancient China was wu wang.

China during the Western Zhou period (1027-771 BC)

The small Zhou tribe, having defeated the Yin people, found themselves at the head of a large military-political association, the limits of which went far beyond the boundaries of the former Shang-Yin territory and practically covered almost the entire Huang He basin. Skillful Yin craftsmen built a new capital for the Zhou Chengzhou. It became the seat of a significant part of the Zhou administration, as well as the main military center where 8 armies were stationed. The rest of the administration, 6 armies and the van himself with all his court continued to live in Zongzhou, in the area of ​​the former tribal settlements of the Chou people. Hence the name of the described period (Western Zhou).

During this period, the doctrine of Mandate of Heaven(tian-ming), according to which Heaven gives a mandate to rule the Celestial Empire to a virtuous ruler, thereby depriving the non-virtuous ruler of power. Defending themselves with a legitimate idea, the Chou people managed to establish an effective centralized administration based on 14 armies of the center in two capitals. Aristocrats who had abilities and merit were usually appointed to administrative positions, primarily from among the Chou and Yin tribal nobility. There is evidence that capable administrators were promoted up the corporate ladder. An important innovation was the creation of a system of appanages, which were provided for hereditary possession and management by relatives and close associates of the ruler. The owner of the inheritance relied on a squad of Zhou warriors. At first, the owners of the destinies were closely connected with the center, dependent on its help and military support. Over the years, however, the situation has changed. The rulers of the destinies already in the 4th-6th generations already felt like full masters in their lands.

The decline of the power of the van and the strengthening of the destinies

The number of original destinies decreased over time. Some of them from the very beginning were larger than their neighbors, which helped them grow faster and more easily overcome rivals. Others were favorably located, allowing them to grow rich or add land at the expense of weaker neighbors. The third, the outlying ones, boldly increased their limits due to wars with the tribes of the outer belt. The fourth, on the contrary, found themselves squeezed by stronger neighbors and, in an unequal struggle, gradually lost the heritage of their fathers. All this led to the strengthening of several large destinies.

One of the rulers of Western Zhou, Xuan-wang tried to carry out a series of reforms aimed at strengthening the central government, for example in the field of taxation. However, the reforms encountered resistance from those around them and, most importantly, turned out to be too late. Xuan-wang's son, Yu-wang, put his beloved concubine above his legal wife, the daughter of the ruler of the Shen inheritance. He, in alliance with neighboring barbarian tribes, invaded Zongzhou and overthrew Yu-wang. After that, the son of Yu-wang, Ping wang, was forced in 771 BC. e. move his residence to the eastern capital, in Loi, which marked the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period. Ping-wang gave the lands in the area of ​​the old capital Zongzhou to one of the allies, who created a new inheritance on the basis of these lands. Qin- the same one that, after 500 years, united the kingdoms of Zhou China within the framework of a single empire.

Zhangguo period ("Wrestling Kingdoms", 5th-3rd centuries BC)

This is a time of large-scale shifts in all spheres of Chinese life, from productive forces to ideology, from the development of the outskirts to the conduct of wars. During this period, China entered the Iron Age. In addition to their role in production, iron tools literally revolutionized the army. The chariots were replaced by numerous and well-armed infantry, and then by the cavalry. There were battles involving many tens and hundreds of thousands of warriors, military strategy and tactics developed, which was reflected in treatises on the art of war. (Sun Tzu).

The Zhangguo period was a time of coexistence and internecine struggle of the seven largest kingdoms. (Wei, Zhao, Han, Qin, Qi, Yan and Chu). The rival kingdoms waged fierce wars among themselves. The map of the country was gradually redrawn, the most powerful states came to the forefront. In most of them, legist-type reforms were carried out. Such reforms were carried out most fully and radically in the middle of the 4th century. BC. in Qin. The legalist laid the foundation for them Shang Yang.

First, communal land use was strictly regulated. Large families were to be divided into small ones. A system of mutual responsibility was created: the courts were united into heels and dozens, under which all the inhabitants of Qin were obliged to follow each other and answer for each other.

Secondly, a new system of social ranks was introduced, which were assigned to any person for his merits, primarily military ones. From a certain level, ranks gave benefits and privileges, up to the right to official tenure and income from it. A peculiar mechanism of expropriation was applied to the overly wealthy owners who benefited from secondary occupations, which included craft and trade. It was possible to avoid troubles on the condition of acquiring a social rank for a considerable amount of money.

In 350 BC the whole kingdom was divided into counties ruled by officials. The system of measures and weights was unified, and their allotments were assigned to the peasants. The distribution of surpluses was under the strict control of the authorities.

Worried about Qin's rapid rise in power, the other six tried to form a coalition against him. The entire second half of Zhangguo was marked by intrigue and skillful diplomacy. However, intrigues and complex alliances did not help. The kingdom of Chu was the last to fall, and in 221 BC. e. Qin Ying Zheng, the future Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi completed the unification of China under his rule.

Qin Empire

Ying Zheng assumed the new title "Qin Shi Huang" ("First Sovereign-Emperor of the Qin Dynasty") The country was turned into a bureaucratic centralized empire. The state subjected to strict administrative control all aspects of people's lives, all weapons were taken away from the population and poured onto the bells. A single law was in force throughout the empire. It was based on a system of guarantees. The death penalty was applied for all sorts of offenses, including petty ones. Often the whole family of the offender was executed or turned into state slaves.

The territory was divided into 36 administrative districts, in each district the civil power was concentrated in the hands of one official, and the military - another. Supervision of them was carried out by a special service of inspectors - the emperor's confidants. The emperor appointed two advisers who were responsible for ensuring that the decrees were carried out immediately. In their submission, the advisers had numerous central departments. One of the most important was the department of yuishi dafu. The duties of its officials included keeping the state archive and checking the work of the districts.

In the country there were massive works on the construction of roads and canals. This contributed to the development of trade and improved management efficiency. In order to make roads less likely to require repairs, uniform axles for wagons were introduced. Throughout the empire, 700 palaces were built for Qin Shi Huang. One of the most beautiful cities in the empire was the capital of Sanyang. During the reign of Qin Shi Huang, the Great Wall of China and a giant tomb for the emperor were built. It housed 6,000 life-sized terracotta warrior guards. Construction was carried out at the expense of the most severe exploitation, taxes for the peasants reached 2/3 of the harvest.

Throughout the country, money, units of measure and weight, as well as writing, were unified. It was ordered to destroy all the works of the pre-Qin era, so that people would have nowhere to learn about the old times and orders. Hundreds of Confucian scholars were executed for their adherence to antiquity and resistance to reforms.

The Qin dynasty caused universal hatred, and after the death of Qin Shi Huang in 210 BC. e. uprisings began all over the country. In 207 BC. e. detachments of the rebels took the capital and overthrew the son of Qin Shi Huang. However, China has since existed as a single state. The subsequent Chinese empires that succeeded Qin borrowed a lot from their predecessor politically and economically. The Qin Empire lasted only 14 years, but in terms of the number of events and the importance of the changes that have taken place, this time is an entire era for China.

Fall of Qin

Qin Shi Huang sought to find the secret of immortality, but in 210 BC. e. died unexpectedly at the age of 49. His heir was the youngest son, who ascended the throne under the name of Ershi Huangdi (210-207 BC).

In 209 BC. e. a popular uprising began in the country, imperial troops began to cross over to the side of the rebels. One of the armies was led by a petty official, Liu Bang. In 202 BC. e. he unites China under his rule and assumes the imperial name-title Gaozu(202-195 BC).

Han dynasty

Gaozu becomes the founder of the new Han Dynasty (206/202 BC - 220 AD).

The system of government was changed. At least half of the territory of the country was given by Gaozu to hereditary inheritances to his closest associates: seven of the most important of them received the titles of vans. In their possessions, they enjoyed wide powers. Vans could independently appoint and dismiss officials, collect taxes and establish duties. In the rest of the country, the administrative apparatus that existed during the Qin dynasty was revived. A number of measures were taken that sharply improved the situation of the people and encouraged the development of production. Gaozu significantly reduced the land tax (to 1/15 of the crop). Many categories of the population were exempted from all duties.

The Han Empire reached its peak during the reign of the emperor. Woo-dee(140-87 BC). Wudi carried out reforms aimed at further centralization of the state. The teaching of Confucius becomes the official ideology. A system of training officials was introduced. The governors of the districts had to find and recommend capable young men to the government. Candidates were sent to study at a specially created academy in the capital, whose graduates, after passing the exams, were appointed to positions in the state apparatus. All free people, regardless of the rank of nobility, had the right to enter the academy.

At the end of the II century. BC e. Han troops make campaigns against the Xiongnu in the north, to Korea, west to East Turkestan and to the borders of modern Vietnam and Myanmar. The territory of the Han Empire increased by almost one third, but as a result, it plunged into an economic and social crisis. Power was usurped by one of the emperor's relatives, popular unrest began, the largest of which were the uprisings of the "red-browed" and "green forest". The peasant armies overthrew the usurper, then clashed among themselves.

The winner of this civil strife was Liu Xiu, who proclaimed himself Emperor Guan Wudi and founded the Eastern, or Later, Han dynasty (25-220). The capital was moved to the east, to the city of Luoyang. At this time, the Han Empire was establishing permanent trade and diplomatic relations with Parthia and the Roman Empire. In the second half of the I-II centuries. the empire is waging almost continuous wars with its neighbors.

The Eastern Han Dynasty also came to an end with popular uprisings, the most powerful of which was the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 CE. e. In 220 AD e., after the death of Wu-di, China breaks up into three independent kingdoms: Wei, Shu and Wu. This event is conditionally considered the end of the history of ancient China.

History of Ancient China, summary

The first empire of ancient China - Qin lasted only a decade and a half, but it laid a solid socio-economic foundation for the Han empire. The new empire became one of the strongest powers of the ancient world. Its more than four centuries of existence was an important stage in the development of the whole of East Asia, coinciding with the epochs of the rise and collapse of the slave-owning mode of production. For the national history of China, this was an important stage in the consolidation of the ancient Chinese people. The Zhangguo-Qin-Han era has the same significance for the historical development of China and all of East Asia as the Greco-Roman world for Europe. The ancient Chinese civilization laid the foundations of a cultural tradition that can be traced further throughout the centuries-old history of China up to the New and modern times.

Features of the study and periodization of the history of ancient China

No other people showed more diligence in the timing of historical events than the Chinese, who began to keep their chronicles at the beginning of the first millennium BC. and afterwards they punctually renewed them dynasties after dynasties.

In Chinese historiography, the use of dynastic periods is accepted. Each dynasty has its own name, different from the names of the rulers. As such names, ethnonyms (the name of the people that founded this state) and toponyms (the names of specific possessions of the future founders of dynasties) were first used. From the 12th century dynasties are denoted by philosophical categorical terms, for example, yuan is literally “original”, that is, laying the foundation for true rule, ming is “enlightened”.

Between dynastic periods there are periods of "Time of Troubles" - the administrative-territorial fragmentation of the country, as indicated by terminological definitions: "The era of the struggling kingdoms", "the era of the Six Dynasties", "Three Kingdoms" and so on.

Since ancient times, the traditional Chinese state has been almost a classic embodiment of the principle of power-property and centralized redistribution. As long as the peasants had allotments, cultivated the land and paid rent-tax to the treasury, the structure of the Chinese empire was strong. Stability of this kind existed, as a rule, within the framework of a dynastic cycle, not for too long, most often no more than for a century. But as soon as the land in a significant amount passed to rich landowners, the situation began to change. The treasury did not receive enough income, this was often compensated by the increased arbitrariness of local authorities. This, in turn, led to a deepening crisis.

History of Ancient China at school - 5th grade

The history of Ancient China in Russian schools is studied in the 5th grade. Lesson objective: To form ideas about Ancient China, to acquaint students with the history of Ancient China, its geographical location, to form an idea of ​​the contribution of Chinese culture to world history. The topic of the lesson is new for students, but it plays an important role in the study of the "Ancient East" section. Expected results: knowledge of the geographical location, natural conditions of Ancient China, the history of the formation of the Qin state. The ability to show on the map the territory of the Qin state, the Great Wall of China and the Great Silk Road. Make judgments about the contribution of the culture of Ancient China to world culture. To characterize the living conditions and occupations of the population, the social system of Ancient China, the position of representatives of different strata. Basic terms, concepts:"The Great Wall of China", "The Great Silk Road", Confucius.

Three Kingdoms era (220-280) and Jin empire

After the fall of the second Han Dynasty and several years of civil strife, three of the most successful commanders came to the fore. Cao Cao ruled in the north, in the Huang He basin, where in 220 his son Cao Lei proclaimed himself the ruler of the state Wei. Liu Bei declares himself ruler of the southwestern part of the country Shu. Sun Quan, became the ruler of the southeastern part of China, the kingdom At. The short period of the Three Kingdoms led to the formation of two independent states in the south of China, poorly developed until then.

Already by the middle of the III century. power in the kingdom of Wei passed to the powerful clan of the commander Sima. In 265, he founded a new Jin dynasty here, which soon, in 280, managed to subjugate Shu and Wu, uniting all of China under its rule again, however, only for a few decades. From the beginning of the 4th c. nomadic northern tribes began to invade northern China one by one, the Jin empire ceased to exist, the period of Nan-bei chao, southern and northern dynasties began.

Nan-bei chao (IV-VI centuries)

The conquerors of northern China were comparatively backward peoples compared to the Chinese. Under the influence of Chinese culture, nomads by the 5th-6th centuries. settled so much that by the end of the VI century. their descendants became ordinary Chinese. Proverb "You can conquer an empire from horseback, but you can't rule it from horseback", - meant that the influence of Chinese culture sooner or later led to the assimilation and Sinicization of any ethnic group that conquered the country. Moreover, foreigners made up only 20% in Northern China; the rest of the population, despite the mass migration of Chinese to the south, was Chinese.

The southern dynasties also succeeded each other fairly quickly (Song, 420-479; Qi, 479-502; Liang, 502-557; Chen, 557-589; Later Liang, coexisting with it, 555-587). The center of Chinese culture was concentrated in the south: outstanding scientists, poets, and thinkers lived here; Buddhism. Already from the 5th c. in the fertile fields of the rice belt, two crops a year began to be harvested, which is still practiced today. In the south, new cities began to be created at a rapid pace, old ones developed and new types of crafts arose, trade and commodity-money relations flourished.

Rise of the Chinese Empire (VI-XIII centuries)

Sui dynasty (581-618)

In 581, the commander of the Northern Zhou kingdom, Yang Jian, united the entire Northern and then Southern China under his rule, proclaiming a new dynasty. The new emperor carried out a number of reforms, seeking to strengthen the state, to cut the ground from under the feet of "strong houses". Each plowman had to have his own field and pay taxes. His son Yang-di resettled 10,000 wealthy families from different regions of the country to the capital Luoyang, which he rebuilt. In the Luoyang region, luxurious palaces were built, as well as huge granaries, and the Great Canal was dug to transport tax grain from the south, which had already become the main breadbasket of the country, linking the Yangtze with the Yellow River. According to some sources, up to 80 thousand people were employed in servicing this structure with all its locks and other devices. Yangdi simultaneously led several colossal construction projects, tried to pursue an active foreign policy and constantly fought, and as a result, the country could not bear the burden. Revolts broke out, Yang-di was killed.

Tang dynasty (618-907)

Li Yuan, one of the military leaders and relatives of Yang-di in the female line, proclaimed himself the ruler of the new Tang dynasty. He and his son Li Shi-min (Tai-tsung, 626-649) laid the foundation for the prosperity of the Chinese empire. The land reform and the implementation of the tax system within the framework of allotment land use provided the treasury with a regular inflow of income, and the state with the necessary labor force (labor duties). Both contributed to strengthening the infrastructure of the empire - roads, canals, dams, palaces, temples, entire large cities were built. Craft and trade flourished, including state-owned craft, where the best highly skilled craftsmen usually concentrated, working as a labor service or in addition to being hired. Crafts and trade were under the strict control of the state, special officials who, through the heads of tuans and khans (guilds and workshops), strictly regulated every step of the city dwellers.

During the Tang period, the empire was divided into 10 provinces (dao), which in turn were subdivided into regions (zhou) and counties (xian). All officials were appointed from the center and controlled by it. This feature gave the administrative-bureaucratic system of China strength and stability. The work of the executive bodies and the entire state system, primarily the apparatus of power, officials, was strictly controlled by the censors-procurators of the Yuishitai Special Chamber, who had great powers, including the right to submit reports to the highest name. The executive power was represented by two chancellors (zaisangs or zhichengs) - the left (he was usually considered senior) and the right, each of whom was in charge of three of the six departments of the Shangshusheng chamber, a kind of Council of Ministers. The first group of departments included the departments of ranks (recruitment and appointments throughout the empire), rituals (monitoring the observance of norms of behavior, protection of public order) and taxes. To the second - the management of military affairs, punishments and public works (implementation of labor duties, construction, including irrigation).

The power of the county chief was very great and therefore was usually controlled most strictly. It was limited both by the term (no more than 3 years in one place, followed by moving to another), and by the place of service (in no case where the official comes from). In the empire, special attention was paid to the important problem of training and recruiting principles for officials. In Tang China, this was done at special examinations for degrees in county, provincial and metropolitan centers, under the strict supervision of special commissions sent from outside, and in a closed room and in writing under the motto. To successfully pass the exam, one had to have a good knowledge of the writings of the ancients, primarily the classical Confucian canons, as well as be able to creatively interpret plots from history, abstractly talk about philosophical treatises and have a literary taste, and be able to compose poetry. All this, of course, in a strictly Confucian spirit, in compliance with the appropriate mandatory form. Those who coped with the task better than others (3-5% of the number of applicants) were awarded the desired degree and, most importantly, received the right to take the exam for the second degree, and the owners of two - for the third.

Song Dynasty (960-1279)

This period is also considered the heyday of the Chinese empire in the sphere of economy, culture, and administration. The number, population and prosperity of cities grew. New crafts appeared: the production of porcelain, silk, lacquerware, wood, ivory, etc. It was at this time that gunpowder and the compass were invented and began to spread widely. Great success was achieved by agriculture and agricultural technology, high-yield varieties of grain were bred, and the cultivation of Indian cotton began.

However, all this was combined with the onslaught of the northern nomadic tribes (Khitans, Tanguts) and the unsuccessful attempts of the Sung empire to repel this onslaught. China was forced to pay a humiliating tribute, but this did not help either, and it was losing territory after territory, city after city.

In 1127, the Jurchens captured Kaifeng, the capital of the Song Empire, and captured the imperial family. One of the emperor's sons flees south to Hangzhou, which later becomes the capital of the new South Sung Empire (1127-1280). The advance of the Jurchen army to the south is held back only by the Yangtze River. The border between the Jin and the South Sung empire is established along the interfluve of the Huang He and the Yangtze.

Against the backdrop of the flourishing of the Tang Song, the following centuries were already a period, if not always of decline, then at least of stagnation.

Mongols and the Yuan dynasty (1280–1368)

Having conquered the peoples of Southern Siberia, neighboring the Mongolian steppe, the army of Genghis Khan in 1210 began a war with the Jurchens and in 1215 already occupied Beijing. It took the Mongols more than 40 years to conquer South Sung China. In 1280, China was completely under the rule of the Mongols, and the great Khan Kublai Khan became the Chinese emperor of the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1280-1368).

The Chinese economy after half a century of wars fell into decline, agriculture and trade were upset. Confucian officials were forced to give way to the Mongols and people from other parts of Asia. The Chinese were considered people of the third and fourth grade (after the Mongols themselves and semu-jen, i.e. people from other countries). However, after a few decades, Confucian officials began to come to the administration again (since 1317, the examination system began to function); the descendants of the first Mongol rulers, who often married Chinese women, increasingly turned into ordinary Chinese. However, the usual scenario of the assimilation of the invaders did not take place.

After a series of cataclysms, the most catastrophic of which was the breakthrough of the dams on the Yellow River in 1334, which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Dissatisfaction with the Mongols sharply increased in the country. Uprisings began to break out, the participants of which were called "Red Armbanders". The rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398) eventually took the imperial throne, founding the Ming dynasty.

China during the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)

Like the previous emperors who ascended the throne, Zhu Yuanzhang did a lot to strengthen the central government, starting with agrarian reforms. Fixed taxation was introduced with relatively low taxes, and some categories of households were sometimes exempted from taxes altogether, as had happened before. The system of duties was universal, but was implemented in turn.

Having successfully expelled the Mongols from the territory of China, the Ming army conducted several successful military campaigns in the south, in the region of Vietnam. The Chinese fleet, led by Zheng He, from 1405 to 1433 made several sea expeditions to the countries of Southeast Asia, to India, and even to the east coast of Africa.

The establishment of trade relations with neighboring countries belongs to the same period. Trade was extremely profitable for foreigners. They presented their goods as “gifts” from the authorities of their country, while the Chinese, perceiving them as a manifestation of tributary trade with the “barbarians”, “given away”, and the volume and value of imperial awards and awards should have been as many times greater than the “tribute”, how much the prestige of the Chinese emperor was valued by the Chinese themselves above the prestige of "tributary rulers".

The Ming Dynasty lasted for almost three centuries, the last half of this period in a protracted crisis. For a century and a half of protracted political struggle at the top for the reforms necessary for the country, the process of ruining the peasants has reached an extreme degree. Li Zi-cheng (1606–1645) became the head of another uprising. In 1644, Li's troops occupied Beijing, and he himself, having finished with the Ming, declared himself emperor. However, he did not manage to gain a foothold on the throne.

Periodization of the history and culture of ancient China

The oldest period - V - III millennium BC.

Shan-Yin period - ser. II millennium BC (XVI - XI centuries BC), I Chinese state

Zhou and Zhangguo periods 11th–3rd centuries BC.

Qin Dynasty - 221 BC – 206 BC

Han Empire - from 206 BC - Han dynasty

From the end of the 3rd century A.D. e. to ser. XIX century continued the Middle Ages in China. The period of Ancient Chinese civilization ended in the 3rd century AD.

China = Middle Kingdom = East and Central Asia appeared about 6 thousand years ago as the oldest civilization on earth.

Chinese writing has become the basis of the writing of Koreans, Vietnamese, Japanese.

Chinese great inventions: silk, gunpowder, compass, porcelain, paper, brushes, ink, printing.

Religion and spiritual schools of ancient China

The main religions of ancient China were Confucianism and Taoism.

Confucianism - goes back to the teachings of the Founder Confucius ≈ (551 - 479 BC). He wanted to give authority to ancient traditions. He did not leave behind any written works, his ideas have come down to us in the late book "Lun Yu". His theory is the basis for practical life and is completely conservative.

The main virtues to be imitated, from the point of view of Confucianism, were as follows: humanity, honesty, decency, wisdom, loyalty.

They are realized in the fundamental relations between people, and the ruler must set a moral example, and put things in order consistently in all spheres of life: in his state - his family - his character - his heart - his thoughts, and initially he must come to insight.

Confucius developed a program for streamlining concepts, the ideal in it is a noble husband - a sage. Mencius (374 - 289 BC) believed that a person is kind by nature, therefore, the basis of all virtues lies in the person himself. The highest goal of the ruler should be the welfare and morality of the people.

Since the 11th century, neo-Confucianism has become the dominant religion in ancient China. It had a dualistic character: there are two main principles of the world - whether(world mind) and qi(principle of material activity).

At the same time, the teaching Yin Yang, based on the comprehension of the "Book of Changes" ("I Ching"). Yang is the beginning of the male, light, strong, strong, Yin is the beginning of the feminine, passive, dark, supple. These are two cosmic principles. And their interaction will explain the appearance and transformation of all things and phenomena on earth. Five main elements were created from their interaction: fire, water, metal, wood, earth.

General order and rules:

Family - the eternal order of relations in the family established by Heaven

Society

Etiquette - a system of rules and norms of human behavior - a ritual

Spiritual life - rules for all spiritual manifestations of life

Art - laws in music, literature and painting

Taoism.

Its classic text is the book "Tao de jin" (circa 5th - 3rd centuries BC). The author is the legendary philosopher Lao Tzu, but his existence has not been proven.

"A book about the path (Tao) and the properties of nature, man", attributed to Lao Tzu.

Tao is nameless and inexplicable, since it is outside the system of linguistic concepts, it is the supreme principle on the other side of all differences.

A Few Theses of Taoist Wisdom.

According to Taoism, true wisdom is to allow the Tao to guide oneself and give up selfish activities. The sage works through inaction: it is not inaction, it is sensitivity to what is happening and the lack of necessary intervention. "Tao forever and ever is non-action, and yet - nothing remains undone!"

Everything must be kept to the bare minimum.

The sage lives in simplicity and acts through imaginary weakness. It is compared with water: “it is useful to all living things, but, despite all the softness of water, nothing HARD WILL CAUSE HER HARM!” NB! Creative Activity: How do you understand this ancient Chinese wisdom?

Zhuangzi (4th century BC) - the second ideologue of Taoism, despised Confucianism for the loss of originally virtuous simplicity.

Tao can only be described in paradoxical, self-cancelling formulations, for example: Tao is nothing, Tao is everything!

The spirit must give up resistance, and then the wind of Tao will carry it like a leaf... You need to find your own Taoist flow and get into it, and then everything in life will turn out by itself, automatically. But the main work is to set the right goal.

NB! Creative task: write out the text of V. Vysotsky's song "Koleya" and find the relationship between its idea and Taoism.

Mo-tzu (V - IV centuries BC) - the third ideologue of Taoism, who created its new form - myism. The cause of evil is the lack of love for others.

Several paradoxical definitions of Tao:

Tao is everything, Tao is nothing

Way of the Universe

The eternal variability of the world, subject to the laws of nature

Balance is possible thanks to the feminine and masculine principles - yang + yin

The natural laws of the Universe, they must not be violated, otherwise the harmony of life is violated

The path of nature

The path of individual life

The measure of man is earth, the measure of earth is heaven, the measure of heaven is Tao, the measure of Tao is itself

Inspiration from the hidden abysses of the universe

Nothingness, emptiness, silence,

Nothing is the abode of the Great Tao

Source of all things =

The manifestation of images of things in the visible world, tearing them out of the void

The rhythm of the universe

Energy flows

Everything in the universe moves in Space and Time, obeying the rhythm of the Great Tao

Nature

Absolute Spirit

Universal Mind

Mysterious pattern imprinting the laws of the universe

Ancient period - V – III thousand BC

The tribes settled in the river valleys of China around the 5th - 3rd millennium BC.

The settlements consisted of adobe huts

Agriculture, animal husbandry, crafts - developed gradually

Works of art: Yangshao vessels - the first ceramics in Ancient China, extraordinary regularity of forms

Complex geometric patterns on vessels of undeciphered symbolism

Shan-Yin period - 16th–11th centuries BC.

Shan - Yin period (the name of the period is given by the name of the tribe) was marked by the creation of the first Chinese state in the Yellow River valley.

The first ideas about the universe formed the ancient Chinese cosmology and philosophy of being, here are its main postulates:

Natural phenomena are only the will of spirits and gods

The deification of all natural phenomena: clouds, rain, wind, thunder and were represented in the images of various animals

The defenders of the living were their dead ancestors, hence the so developed ancestor cult appeared, during which the living served the souls of the dead, looked after the graves, put all handicrafts into it

Heaven is the supreme deity of the universe

Ideas about the earth and the sky: the earth is square, China is in its center, and the sky is a circle. A semicircular sphere over a square of earth; hence the ancient name of China "Middle Kingdom" and "Celestial Empire"

Sacrifices to heaven were made on round altars outside the settlements, square altars were created right on the ground as small images of the whole earth.

The ruler of the state of China was called "van", he was at the same time and = at the same time the high priest in the state.

Development of science, technology, architecture and art:

During this period, silk weaving, bronze casting, hieroglyphic writing, the basics of urban planning appeared.

bronze casting

Image of animals, birds

Jade, bone, wood carving

Deification of nature and ancestors

Decorative art objects (bronze, jade)

Lacquerware (only in China)

Magic sacrificial vessels, heavy, bronze, with rich relief

The relief included images of birds, dragons, cicadas, bulls, rams, their task is to protect people and crops.

The capital is the city of Shan, in the city - the palace of the Ruler on a rectangular platform

Underground burials of the nobility were found: two underground cruciform chambers, their area is 400 m²

Zhou and Zhangguo periods

In the XI century. BC. the state of Shan-Yin was conquered by a tribe Zhou but by the end of the 7th c. BC. protracted internecine wars began.

Period V - III centuries. BC. in Chinese history named zhangguo It means "Wrestling Realms". During this period, vast areas of neighboring territories were annexed to China.

Iron deposits were discovered, iron tools began to appear. Trade developed. For the first time, round coins appeared. Strengthening the role of the state. Growth of cities.

A significant event took place in science: the first educational institution was opened, which was called the "Academy".

During this period, two main religious teachings, spiritual schools, two ancient Chinese philosophies, Confucianism and Taoism, were born and developed.

Development of architecture and other arts:

Sculptures from marble

Imperial mausoleums

Wall painting and stone reliefs of buried temples:

Image of life scenes, legends, musicians

The labor of the people in the salt mines (relief from the city of Chandu)

Image of a person (carving, casting)

Paintings on silk "Girl, phoenix and dragon"

Silk fabrics and the "Great Silk Road"

3rd century BC. - Construction of the Great Wall of China begins

Walled cities

The main feature of ancient Chinese architecture is the pagoda: a roof with curved corners

Brief chronological table of the history and culture of ancient China

4 thousand BC - Yangshao culture (4000 - 2400 BC): red pottery, geometric spiral pattern

≈ 2500 BC – emergence of acupuncture (= acupuncture)

≈ 2400 BC - Longshan culture near the Yellow River (Yellow River)

≈ 2160 BC - the first evidence of the observation of an eclipse of the Sun

≈ 2000 BC - semi-legendary Xia Dynasty

XIX - XVIII centuries BC - Hittites establish their own state

End of the 18th century BC. - the era of the Shan-Yin dynasty, until 1025 BC.

Technique of bronze products

Writing

Ancient Chinese bronze ritual objects

14th century BC. - building plan of Anyang, the new capital of the Shang-Yin era

≈ 1025 BC - Zhou Dynasty (replaced Shang-Yin)

spread of writing

722 BC - period "Spring and autumn", Eastern Zhou (722 - 481)

growing cities - palaces - capitals

≈ 600 BC – ancient Chinese poetry “Shijing” (collection)

481 BC - warring states period

End of the 4th century BC. - Chinese philosopher Zhuang Tzu - author of a work with his name, the beginning of Taoism

3rd century BC. - Confucianism (or Meng Tzu - the name of the work), Taoism ("Daodejing" = "The book about the path (Tao) and the properties of nature, man", attributed to Lao Tzu

"Zhuang Tzu" - also a Taoist direction in religion

Han Fei (died 233 BC) - treatise "Han Fei-zi" - the concept of "law"

Quasi-paper is created - from silk fiber

221 BC - the beginning of the reign of I Emperor Qin Shi Huang, the unification of China

Start of construction of the Great Wall of China

213 BC - the emperor ordered: to burn all the old books as a symbol of the old order

210 BC – life-size painted clay warriors from a burial

≈ 206 d BC - the end of the Qin dynasty, the beginning of the Han dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD)

200 BC - the capital is transferred to the city of Chang-an

165 BC – for the first time pass official examinations for the recruitment of government officials

134 BC - Chinese emperor Wu-Di, the beginning of the reign of the Mandarins

125 BC – opened the possibility of trade with India and Iran

119 BC – the Han Empire – defeats the nomads and takes control of the “Great Silk Road”

80 BC – Sim Qian writes "Historical Notes" - the first prototype of the history of China

23 AD - the beginning of the Eastern (Younger) Han dynasty, the capital - Changt'an was renamed Luoyang

40 - Vietnam uprising against Chinese invaders

48 - Southern Xiongnu - Xiongnu recognize the power of the Han Empire, its territory extends along 2 sides of the Chinese wall

58 - Ming Di - Liu Zhuang becomes emperor of China - the territory of the state expands

68 - I Buddhist settlements in China (Loyang = Henan)

105 - Invention of plant fiber paper by Chinese scientist Cai Lun

123 - Northern Xiongnu defeated by Chinese

184 - Yellow Turban Rebellion (leaders were supporters of Taoism)

190 - the beginning of the Xian Di (Liu Xie) dynasty - this is the last Chinese emperor of the Eastern Ya Han dynasty

220 - the beginning of the period of internal fragmentation - until 581

220 - 280 years - the era of the Three Kingdoms: the empire breaks up into 3 independent states: north - Wei (the capital of Luoyang), Cao Pei center - Shu (the capital of Chandru, Han Liu Bei); the southern part - the capital of Wushang, then - Nanjing

260 - Chinese Liu Hui discovers the solution of a system of equations and calculates the number ∏ ≈ 3.14159

265 - Sima Yan seizes power in Wei, Shu and establishes a new dynasty: the Western Jin

317 - the era of the Southern and Northern dynasties (317 - 589 years) has come, in Egypt - Coptic art is being formed, the art of the Monophysites appears, which is different from the Hellenistic-Roman

420 - The Western Jin dynasty in southern China is replaced by the Song dynasty in Nanjing

325 - Shapu II and the national synod fixes the final text of the "Avesta" - the holy book of Mazdaism

479 - The Song Dynasty is replaced by the Qi Dynasty.

General conclusion on the culture of ancient China.

The world significance of ancient Chinese culture lies in its unique harmonious combination of strength and weakness, hardness and softness, social and individual, material and spiritual, active and contemplative, etc.

The symbols of Yin and Yang have become for all times and for all peoples of the earth a saving monad of understanding the unity and struggle of opposites, which formed the basis of European dialectical philosophy.

The tea ceremony of Ancient China for all subsequent stormy and tragic periods of the struggle of mankind for its existence has become forever an outlet and the best way to relax tired people.

Mankind owes the Chinese many technical achievements (compass, seismograph, paper, gunpowder, and much more).

Chinese culture is considered traditional. To many, this gave reason to believe that it was, as it were, incapable of scientific and technological progress. However, firstly, scientific and technological progress is an important, but far from the only indicator of the level of cultural development of a society. Secondly, if we keep in mind the ability of society to satisfy its daily needs, ancient Chinese culture in the period between the 1st century BC. BC. and XY c. AD was more efficient than Western culture. In ancient Chinese culture, a contemplative attitude of man to nature was encouraged, and this paid off: among all the ancient peoples, the Chinese were the greatest naturalists.

And the very way of life of ancient Chinese society is very instructive for modern mankind.

The theory of Taoism and the image of the Great Tao are uniquely able to connect a person with his personal cosmos, the universe, the universe, make us feel not alone in the boundless expanses of time and space, extend to us the hand of tenderness of the Great to the small...

NB! Creative task: what spiritual personal discoveries allowed you to make your acquaintance with the ancient Chinese culture and what does it mean for you personally?

The history of ancient China goes back into the distant past: several thousand years ago, great China was already formed. There were ups and downs as well.

The periodization of Ancient China is due to the change of dynasties, which ultimately create this very history. Let's take a look at it.

Periodization of Ancient China

All these dynasties are also divided into several groups.

Stages of periodization of the history of the state in Ancient China:

1. The first people in the Neolithic era.

2. The period with the first three dynasties, when China was fragmented, there was no empire as such.

3. Traditional China and the empire.

This is where the whole of old China ends, the dynasties as such cease to rule, and the last stage begins, covering only the 20th and 21st centuries.

However, the period before the beginning of the Middle Ages belongs to Ancient China, it ends with the Han Dynasty. The entire period of the existence of Ancient China can be expressed as building the foundation for a great state, for what it is now.

Let us consider below briefly the history of civilization and the periodization of Ancient China, the social and state systems, as well as the philosophy of that time and great inventions.

The beginning of the story

It is known that the first ancestors of the Chinese lived 400 thousand years ago in the Neolithic era. The remains of Sinanthropus were found in a cave near Beijing. The first people already owned coloring and some other skills.

In general, the territory of China is convenient for life, so history recedes into such a distant past. The soil is fertile, and the steppe itself is surrounded by the sea, mountains, which could protect people from attacks by enemies. Such a convenient location attracted the first inhabitants, who were the ancestors of the current Chinese.

Scientists also know that there were two cultures after Sinanthropus: Yangshao and Longshan. There were probably more, but they mixed with each other. Only two have been archaeologically confirmed.

Yangshao culture existed 2-3 thousand years BC. People of that period lived on a vast territory from the province of Gansu and up to the south of Manchuria. It is known that they could make beautiful colored pottery.

Longshan was located mainly in the province of Shandong. In central China, both cultures overlapped each other. People also mastered the skill of processing ceramics, but their main pride was the ability to make various objects from bone. On some of them, which were found by scientists, scraped inscriptions were found. This was the first prerequisite for writing.

Further, it is conditionally possible to single out several stages of periodization of the history and culture of Ancient China. The first three dynasties belong to the stage before the formation, then the many dynasties during the existence of the Empire, and the last stage is the system without dynasties and modern China.

Xia dynasty

The first known dynasty in the chronology and periodization of Ancient China is its founder was Yu, and it existed from 2205 to 1557 BC. According to some theories, the state was located in the entire east of Northern China, or only in the north and in the center of Henan province.

The first rulers coped with their tasks of governing the state quite well. The main asset of the Xia era is the calendar of that time, which Confucius himself later admired.

However, the decline happened, and it was caused by the pressure of the clergy, and the rulers-confessors soon began to neglect their duties as clergy. Calendar dates began to get confused, the periodization of Ancient China went astray, the social and political structure was lame. Emperor Li of the Shang State took advantage of this weakening and started the next dynasty.

Shang-Yin dynasty

The period of government begins in the 18th or 16th century BC. e. according to various theories, and ends in the XII or XI century BC. e.

In total, this dynasty has about 30 rulers. Li Tang (the founder of the dynasty) and his tribe believed in totemism. They adopted the custom of fortune telling from the Longshan culture, and they also used tortoise shells for divination.

During the reign of Shang-Yin, a centralized government policy, led by the emperors of the dynasty, reigned.

The end of the period came when the Zhou tribes overthrew the ruler.

Zhou dynasty

Zhou is the last powerful dynasty of the first stage in the periodization of the history of the state of Ancient China before the formation of the Chinese Empire, which existed from the 9th to the 3rd century BC.

There are two stages: Western and Eastern Zhou. The Western Zhou had its capital, Zongzhou, in the west, and the possessions covered almost the entire basin of the Yellow River. The essence of the policy of that time was that the main emperor ruled in the capital, and his close associates (usually relatives) ruled over the many destinies into which the state split. This led to civil strife and a struggle for power. But in the end, stronger possessions enslaved the weaker ones.

China at the same time defended itself from the constant attacks of the barbarians. That is why the ruler moved from the western capital to the eastern capital of Chengzhou in the state of Loi in 770 BC, and the period of ancient Chinese history called Western Zhou began. The move of the ruler meant a conditional renunciation of power and government.

All of China was split into several kingdoms: Yan, Zhao, Song, Zheng, Lu, Qi, Chu, Wei, Han, Qin, and into many small principalities that conquered large kingdoms over time. In fact, some kingdoms were much more powerful in politics than the kingdom where the main ruler Zhou was located. Qi and Qin were considered the most powerful, and it was their rulers who made the greatest contribution to politics and to the fight against the barbarians.

Separately, it is worth highlighting the kingdom of Lu from these kingdoms. Education and writing reigned in it, although Lu was not strong politically. It was here that Confucius, the founder of Confucianism, was born and lived. The end of the Zhou period is usually considered the year of the death of the philosopher in 479 BC. Confucius wrote the history of Western Zhou in the Chunqiu chronicle. Many events of that time are known only thanks to these records. It is also known that Taoism began to penetrate China during this period.

The end of the dynasty was the fact that all the kingdoms fought among themselves for power. The most powerful one won - Qin with the ruler Qin Shi Huang, who, after the conquest, was able to unite all of China and start a new dynasty. And the ruler of Zhou himself lost the status of a heavenly mandate.

Qin

Since the Qin ruler united all of China, a new stage in the history and periodization of Ancient China began. The era of fragmentation was replaced by the era of imperial rule with the united parts of the entire state.

The era did not last long. Only from 221 to 207 BC, but it is Qin Shi Huang (the first emperor) who makes a special contribution to the culture of Ancient China. During this period, the Great Wall of China was built - a special property of the state, the greatness of which still amazes. The ruler Qin Shi Huang carried out many reforms. For example, monetary and judicial reform, and also the reform of writing. Under him, the construction of a single network of roads began.

Despite all the advantages, historians identify significant disadvantages, which were the reason that the Qin period did not last long. Qin Shi Huang was a supporter of legalism. Legalism is a philosophical school of that period, the essence of which was very harsh measures for people and punishments for any offenses and not only. This influenced such a sharp jump in the form of victories over different tribes and such a rapid construction of the Chinese Wall in order to protect against barbarians and enemy captivity. But it was cruelty that led to the dislike of people and a sharp change in dynasties immediately after the death of Qin Shi Huang.

Han and Xin

The Han Empire lasted from 206 BC to 220 AD. It is divided into two periods: Western Han (from 206 BC to 9 AD) and Late (Eastern) Han (25-220 AD)

The Western Han had to deal with the devastation after the Qin period. Famine and mortality reigned in the empire.

The ruler Liu Bang freed many state slaves who became involuntary under Qin for wrongdoing. He also abolished harsh taxes and harsh punishments.

However, in 140-87 BC. e. the empire returned to despotism, as it had under the Qin ruler. The ruler of the Wudi dynasty again introduced high taxes, which were levied even on children and the elderly (this led to frequent murders in families). The territory of China by this time greatly expanded.

Between the Western and Eastern Han was the gap of the Xin Dynasty, led by the ruler Wang Mang, who managed to overthrow the Eastern Han. He tried to consolidate his power through many positive reforms. For example, a certain territory of land was established for each family. If it was higher than expected, then part was given to the poor or people without land.

But at the same time, lawlessness occurred with officials, because of which the treasury was empty, and taxes had to be greatly increased. This gave rise to people's discontent. Popular uprisings began, and this also served as an advantage for the representatives. Wang Mang was killed during the uprising called "Red Eyebrows".

Liu Xiu was nominated as a candidate for the throne. He wanted to reduce people's hostility to power by lowering taxes and freeing the slaves. The Western Han period began. This time also made a significant contribution to history. It was then that the Great Silk Road was established.

At the end of the second century, unrest broke out among the people again. The uprising of the "yellow bandages" began, which lasted almost 20 years. The dynasty was overthrown, the period of the Three Kingdoms began.

Although the Han period was a period of upsurge, at the end of the era, after a twenty-year war, a constant struggle began between the generals of the dynasty and other leaders. This entailed another unrest in the empire and mortality.

Jin

The Jin era and subsequent periods can already be attributed to the Middle Ages, but let's look at the very first dynasties in order to understand what the policy of Ancient China led to and how the rulers had to eliminate the consequences.

The population after the Han wars decreased several times. There were also cataclysms. The rivers began to change their courses, thereby causing floods and the decline of the economy. The situation was aggravated by the constant raids of nomads.

Cao Cao, who ended the Yellow Turban Rebellion, unified China's fragmented north in 216. And in 220, his son Cao Pei founded the Wei dynasty. At the same time, the states of Shu and Wu arose. And so the period of the Three Kingdoms began. Constant wars began between them, which aggravated the military-political situation inside China.

In 249, Sima Zhao became the leader of Wei. And his son Sima Yan, when his father died, took the throne and founded the Jin dynasty. First, Wei conquered the state of Shu, and then Wu. The Three Kingdoms period came to an end, the Jin era (265-316) began. Soon the nomads conquered the north, the capital had to be moved from Luoyang to the south of China.

Simia Yan began distributing land to his relatives. In 280, a decree was issued on the allotment system, the essence of which was that each person was entitled to a land plot, but in return people had to pay the treasury. This was necessary to improve relations with ordinary people, replenish the treasury and raise the economy.

However, this did not lead to an improvement in centralization, as was supposed, but rather the opposite. After the death of Sima Yang in 290, a struggle began between the owners of large destinies - relatives of the deceased ruler. It lasted 15 years, from 291 to 306. At the same time, in the north of the state, the positions of the nomads were strengthening. Gradually, they settled along the rivers, began to grow rice and enslave entire human settlements.

During the Jin period, as is known, the religion of Buddhism began to strengthen. Many monks and Buddhist temples appeared.

Sui

Only in 581, after a long period of unrest, Zhou Yang Jiang managed to unite the north, fragmented by nomads. The Sui Dynasty begins. Then he captures the state of Chen in the south and thereby unites all of China. His son Yang Di engaged in wars with some states of Korea and Vietnam, created the Great Canal for the transportation of rice and improved the China Wall. But people were in difficult conditions, because of which a new uprising began, and Yang Di was killed in 618.

chan

Li Yuan founded a dynasty that lasted from 618 to 907. The empire reached its peak during this period. The Li rulers improved economic ties with other states. Cities and population in them began to increase. They began to actively develop agricultural crops (tea, cotton). Especially in this regard, Li Yuan's son, Li Shimin, stood out, whose policy reached a new level. However, in the 8th century, the conflict between the military and the authorities in the center of the empire reached its peak. In 874, the Huang Chao War began, which lasted until 901, because of which the dynasty ended. In 907-960, the Chinese Empire was again fragmented.

State and social systems of ancient China

The periodization of all periods of Ancient China can be considered as stages of history similar to each other in terms of their structure. The social structure is based on collective farming. The main activities of people are cattle breeding and crafts (which were developed to a high level).

At the top of power was the aristocracy, below were the slaves and peasants.

The ancestral heritage was pronounced. During the Shang-Yin period, each of the ruler's relatives was given a special title, depending on how close relatives they were. Each title came with its own privileges.

During the Yin and Western Zhou periods, land was given out only for use and economy, but not as private property. And since the Eastern Zhou period, land has already been distributed for private ownership.

Slaves were first state-owned and later became private. Captives, very poor community members, vagrants and others usually fell into their category.

In the stages of the periodization of Ancient China's social and state structure, it can be distinguished that in the Yin era, the brother of the deceased ruler first of all inherited the throne, and in Zhou the title passed to the son from the father.

Under the ruler, the palace system of government reigned.

Separately, it is worth highlighting, speaking about the periodization of the history of the state and Ancient China: law already existed, but at the initial stage it was strongly intertwined with religious principles and ordinary ethics. Patriarchy reigned, elders and fathers were revered.

In the V-III centuries BC. e. law was an integral part with cruel punishments, while there was already legalism. And during the Han Dynasty, people again returned to Confucianism and the idea of ​​​​harmonious inequality of people depending on the rank.

The first written sources of law date from about 536 BC.

Philosophy

The philosophy of ancient China is very different from the philosophy of any other European countries. If in Christianity and Islam there is a god and life after death, then in Asian schools there was a principle of "here and now". In China, they also called for kindness during life, but simply for harmony and well-being, and not under fear of punishment after death.

It was based on the trinity: heaven, earth and man himself. People also believed that there is Qi energy, and there should be harmony in everything. They singled out the feminine and masculine: yin and yang, which complemented each other for harmony.

In total, there are several main philosophical schools of that time: Confucianism, Buddhism, Mohism, Legalism, Taoism.

Thus, if we summarize what has been said, we can conclude: already before our era, Ancient China formulated a certain philosophy and adhered to some religions, which are still an integral part of the spiritual life of the population in China. At that time, all the main schools changed and only sometimes overlapped each other, depending on the stage of periodization.

Culture of Ancient China: heritage, crafts and inventions

The Great Wall of China is still considered one of the greatest assets of China to this day. The most amazing thing here is that they were built under the control of the first emperor of ancient China, Qin Shi Huang of the Qin dynasty. It was then that legalism and cruelty towards people who, under fear and pressure, built these truly great structures, reigned.

But the great inventions include gunpowder, paper, printing and the compass.

It is believed that Cai Long invented paper in 105 BC. e. For its manufacture, a special technology was required, which nevertheless resembles the current process of making paper. Before this period, people scraped writing on shells, bones, clay tablets and bamboo bundles. The invention of paper led to the invention of printing in a later period of our era.

The first semblance of a compass arose in ancient China during the Han Dynasty.

But there were countless crafts in ancient China. Several thousand years BC. e. silk began to be mined (the extraction technology of which remained secret for a long time), tea appeared, and clay and bone products were made. A little later, the Great Silk Road appeared, they made drawings on silk, marble sculptures, and paintings on the walls. And also in ancient China, well-known pagodas and acupuncture appeared.

Conclusion

The social and political structure of ancient China (periodized from the Neolithic era up to the Han dynasty) had its drawbacks and advantages. Subsequent dynasties adjusted the way they conducted politics. And the whole history of ancient China can be described as periods of rise and fall, moving in a spiral. Moving upwards, so the "flourishing" each time became more and more improved and better. Periodization of the history of Ancient China is a voluminous and interesting topic, which we examined in the article.

Compass, gunpowder, dumplings, paper (including toilet paper and paper money), silk and many other things from our everyday life, what do they have in common? As you might guess, they all came to us from ancient China. Chinese culture and civilization has brought mankind a great many useful inventions and discoveries. And not only in the material sphere, but also in the spiritual one, because the teachings of the great Chinese philosophers and sages, such as Kung Tzu (better known as Confucius) and Lao Tzu remain relevant at all times and epochs. What was the history of ancient China, its culture and religion, read about all this in our article.

History of ancient China

The emergence of the civilization of ancient China falls on the second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. In those distant times, China was an ancient feudal state, which was called Zhou (after the name of the ruling dynasty). Then the state of Zhou as a result broke up into several small kingdoms and principalities, which continuously fought with each other for power, territory and influence. The Chinese themselves call this ancient period of their history Zhangguo - the era of the Warring States. Gradually, seven main kingdoms stood out, which absorbed all the others: Qin, Chu, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan.

Despite political fragmentation, Chinese culture and civilization developed rapidly, new cities appeared, crafts and agriculture flourished, and iron replaced bronze. It is this period that can also be safely called the golden age of Chinese philosophy, since it was at that time that the famous Chinese sages Lao Tzu and Confucius lived, on whom we will dwell in more detail a little later, as well as their numerous students and followers (for example, Chuang Tzu) who also enriched the world treasury of wisdom with their thoughts and works.

Again, despite the fact that the Chinese civilization at that time consisted of seven fragmented kingdoms, they had a common essence, one language, one tradition, history, religion. And soon one of the strongest kingdoms - Qin, under the rule of the stern and warlike emperor Qin Shi Huang, managed to conquer all the other kingdoms, reunite ancient China under the banner of a single state.

True, the Qin dynasty ruled unified China for only 11 years, but this decade was one of the greatest in Chinese history. The reforms carried out by the emperor affected all aspects of Chinese life. What were these reforms of ancient China that had such an impact on the life of the Chinese?

The first of these was the land reform, which dealt a crushing blow to communal land tenure, for the first time land began to be freely bought and sold. The second was the administrative reform, which divided the entire Chinese territory into administrative centers, they are counties (xiang), at the head of each such county was a state official who, with his head, answered to the emperor for order in his territory. The third important reform was the tax reform, if before the Chinese paid a land tax - a tithe of the crop, now the fee was charged depending on the cultivated land, which gave the state an annual permanent income, regardless of crop failure, drought, etc. All the risks associated with crop failures now fell on the shoulders of farmers.

And without a doubt, the most important in those turbulent times was the military reform, which, incidentally, preceded the unification of China: first, the Qin, and then the general Chinese army was rearmed and reorganized, cavalry was included in it, bronze weapons were replaced with iron ones, long riding clothes of warriors were replaced short and more comfortable (like nomads). The soldiers were divided into fives and dozens, connected with each other by a system of mutual responsibility, those who did not show due courage were severely punished.

This is what the ancient Chinese warriors looked like, the terracotta army of Qin Shi Huang.

Actually, these measures of the reformer Qin Shihauandi helped make the Qin army one of the most combat-ready in ancient China, defeat other kingdoms, unite China and turn it into the strongest state in the East.

The Qin dynasty was replaced by the new Han dynasty, which strengthened the cause of its predecessors, expanded Chinese territories, and extended Chinese influence to neighboring peoples, from the Gobi desert in the north to the Pamir mountains in the west.

Map of ancient China during the Qin and Han eras.

The reign of the Qin and Han dynasties is the period of the greatest flourishing of the ancient Chinese civilization and culture. The Han Dynasty itself lasted until the 2nd century BC. e. and also collapsed as a result of the next unrest, the era of Chinese power was again replaced by an era of decline, which was again replaced by periods of take-off. After the fall of the Han, the era of the Three Kingdoms began in China, then the Jin dynasty came to power, then the Sui dynasty, and so many times one imperial Chinese dynasties succeeded others, but all of them could not reach the level of greatness that was under the ancient Qin and Han. Nevertheless, China has always experienced the most terrible crises and troubles of history, like a Phoenix bird, reborn from the ashes. And in our time, we are witnessing another rise of Chinese civilization, because even this article you are probably reading on a computer or phone or tablet, many of the details of which (if not all) are made, of course, in China.

Culture of ancient China

Chinese culture is extraordinarily rich and multifaceted, it has greatly enriched the global culture. And the greatest contribution here, in our opinion, is the invention of paper by the Chinese, which in turn actively influenced the development of writing. In those days, when the ancestors of many European peoples still lived in semi-dugouts and could not even think about writing, the Chinese already created extensive libraries with the works of their pundits.

The writing technology of ancient China also underwent a considerable evolution and appeared even before the invention of paper, at first the Chinese wrote on bamboo, for this the bamboo trunks were split into thin boards and hieroglyphs were applied to them with black ink from top to bottom. Then they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges, and a bamboo panel was obtained, which could be easily rolled up. This was an ancient Chinese book. The appearance of paper made it possible to significantly reduce the cost of book production, and make books themselves accessible to many. Although, of course, ordinary Chinese peasants in those days remained illiterate, but for government officials and especially aristocrats, literacy, as well as mastery of the art of writing, calligraphy was a mandatory requirement.

Money in ancient China, as well as in other civilizations, was first in the form of metal coins, however, in different kingdoms, these coins could have a different shape. Nevertheless, over time, it was the Chinese who were the first, however, already in a later era, to use paper money.

We know about the high level of development of crafts in ancient China from the works of Chinese writers of those times, as they tell us about ancient Chinese artisans of various specialties: casters, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, weavers, ceramics specialists, builders of dams and dams. Moreover, each Chinese region was famous for its skilled craftsmen.

Shipbuilding actively developed in ancient China, as evidenced by the well-preserved model 16 of a rowing boat, a junk, which was discovered by archaeologists.

It looks like an ancient Chinese junk.

And yes, the ancient Chinese were good sailors and in this matter they could even compete with the European Vikings. Sometimes the Chinese, as well as the Europeans, undertook real sea expeditions, the most grandiose of which is the voyage of the Chinese admiral Zheng He, it was he who was the first of the Chinese to sail to the coast of East Africa and visited the Arabian Peninsula. For orientation in sea travel, the Chinese were helped by a compass, invented by them.

Philosophy of ancient China

The philosophy of ancient China stands on two pillars: Taoism and Confucianism, which are based on two great Teachers: Lao Tzu and Confucius. These two areas of Chinese philosophy harmoniously complement each other. If Confucianism defines the moral, ethical side of the Chinese public life (relationship with other people, respect for parents, service to society, proper upbringing of children, nobility of spirit), then Taoism is more of a religious and philosophical doctrine of how to achieve inner perfection and harmony with the outside world and at the same time with yourself.

Don't do to other people what you don't want them to do to you.. - Confucius.

Allowing great malice, you acquire an excess of malice. Calm down - doing good. Lao Tzu.

These lines of two great Chinese sages, in our opinion, perfectly convey the essence of the philosophy of ancient China, its wisdom for those who have ears (in other words, this is briefly the most important of it).

Religion of ancient China

The ancient Chinese religion is largely connected with Chinese philosophy, its moral component comes from Confucianism, the mystical from Taoism, and also much is borrowed from Buddhism, a world religion, which in the 5th century BC. e. appeared in the next.

The Buddhist missionary and monk Bodhidharma (who is also the founder of the legendary Shao-Lin Monastery), according to legend, was the first to bring the Buddhist teachings to China, where it fell on fertile ground and flourished, largely acquiring a Chinese flavor from synthesis with Taoism and Confucianism. Since then, Buddhism has become the third integral part of China's religion.

Buddhism also had a very good influence on the development of education in ancient China (a commoner could become a Buddhist monk, and being a monk already had to learn literacy and writing). Many Buddhist monasteries simultaneously became real scientific and cultural centers of that time, where learned monks were engaged in rewriting Buddhist sutras (creating extensive libraries at the same time), teaching people to read and write, sharing their knowledge with them, and even opening Buddhist universities.

Buddhist monastery Shao-Lin, and it is from here that martial arts originate.

Many Chinese emperors patronized Buddhism by making generous donations to monasteries. At some point, ancient China became a real stronghold of the Buddhist religion, and from there Buddhist missionaries spread the light of the Buddha's teachings to neighboring countries: Korea, Mongolia, Japan.

Art of ancient China

The religion of ancient China, especially Buddhism, largely influenced its art, since many works of art, frescoes, sculptures were created by Buddhist monks. But besides this, a special and peculiar style of painting was formed in China, in which great attention is paid to landscapes, describing the beauty of nature.

Like this painting by Chinese artist Liao Songtang, written in the original Chinese style.

Architecture of ancient China

Many ancient Chinese buildings, created by talented architects of the past, still arouse our admiration to this day. The magnificent palaces of the Chinese emperors are especially amazing, which, first of all, were supposed to focus on the high position of the emperor. In their style, without fail, there is grandeur and splendor.

Palace of the Chinese Emperor, Forbidden City, Beijing.

The palaces of Chinese emperors consisted of two sections: front or official, and everyday or residential, where the private life of the emperor and his family took place.

Buddhist architecture in China is represented by numerous beautiful pagodas and temples built with Chinese pomp and grandeur.

Chinese pagoda.

Buddhist temple.

• Ancient China is the birthplace of football, according to Chinese historians, since this ball game is mentioned in ancient Chinese chronicles that date back to 1000 BC. e.
• It was the Chinese who were one of the first inventors of the calendar, so around 2000 BC. e. they began to use the lunar calendar, mainly for agricultural work.
• Since ancient times, the Chinese have revered birds, with the phoenix, crane and duck enjoying the greatest respect. Phoenix personifies imperial power and strength. The crane symbolizes longevity, and the duck symbolizes family happiness.
• Among the ancient Chinese, polygamy was legal, but of course, on the condition that the husband was rich enough to support several wives. As for the Chinese emperors, sometimes there were thousands of concubines in their harems.
• The Chinese believed that during the practice of calligraphy, the improvement of the human soul takes place.
• The Great Wall of China, a grandiose monument of Chinese construction, is included in the Guinness Book of Records for many parameters: it is the only building on earth that can be seen from space, it was built 2000 years - from 300 BC. e. before 1644, and more people died during its construction than anywhere else.

Ancient China video

And in conclusion, an interesting documentary about ancient China.

Exploring the past of the Celestial Empire is a difficult task. The scale of the accumulated information is amazing: behind the designation of the next stage, a secular gap, a change of generations, a series of events is found.

The term "dynasty" is a tribute to tradition. In short: imperial "dynasties" that are not dominant families are periods of development and formation of a great state.

What year is the history of China?

Prehistoric China did not have a generally accepted time system. The basic "historical gaps" differed according to the periods of the reign of the supreme ruler.

Chinese scientists (not without imperial pathos) claim the 5000-year age of the state system. The history of China is measured from the legendary deeds of Wang Fu Xi, who is considered the mythological father, founder and oldest ruler of the country. If we do not operate with legends and myths, but talk “briefly about the main thing”: there is no documentary evidence of the existence of the state before the formation of the Shang dynasty. It is from the reign of Shang (1600-1027 BC) that the history of the PRC is calculated.

Periodization of Ancient China

Accounting for years in the Empire was carried out by two methods. The chronology of the eras of the reign of the next ruler and the chronology of the cycles, where the years were combined into sixty-year stages.

The tradition considered the origins of all things in the five elements. Each sign of the primary element with one of the twelve animals gave the name of the year in the cycle of everyday life.

Interesting! Sinology distinguishes ten dynasties and focuses on periods of simultaneous existence of several ruling houses.

These "moments" of the vast history of the country are singled out separately:

• the reign of the "six families" (220-589): between the fall of the Han and the rise of the Sui;
• the era of political upheavals, "five houses and ten state formations" (907-960).

The emergence of the state of Shan-Yin

Shan (Shan-Yin in some sources) is the first Chinese state, the existence of which is confirmed by archaeological artifacts.

An ancient legend says: the leader Pan Geng demolished the town of Anyang in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and founded the settlement, giving it the name Shan. The name of the settlement spread not only to the “freshly created” state, but also to the whole family of kings.

The result of numerous wars was the enslavement of numerous neighbors by the Shan rulers and the triumphant grandiose expansion of the territories of the Empire.

In Shan-Ying there was a calendar, the beginnings of writing and ... a huge army armed with bronze swords, excellent bows and war carts.

Xia dynasty

Zhou dynasty

Zhou rule lasted about 800 years. For better analysis and systematization, scientists divide Zhou into two periods:

• western (1045 BC - 770 BC) - the clan ruled the whole country;
• eastern (770 BC - 256 BC) - the van gradually loses its supremacy of power, the country's territory turns into a "patchwork quilt" of individual states.

The eastern stage is divided into "spring and autumn chronicles", when there were many independent fiefdoms (subordinate to the central government) in the vastness of the country and the period of contention Zhangguo ("Fighting Kingdoms") when the Zhou were overthrown from the throne.

During the time of Zhangguo, the country is undergoing major changes:

• growing urbanization;
• the spread of iron tools and, as a result, an increase in labor productivity;
• restructuring of army structures;
• development of commodity-money, market relations;
• mass settlement of little developed regions.

All this against the backdrop of acute political instability and large-scale battles. The relentless wars for Power led to the collapse of the ruling house. The Zhou ruler lost his heavenly mandate. The most powerful state of Qin with the ruler Shi Huang won in the "war against all".

In 221, the founder of the dynasty united dozens of small fiefdoms into a single country, demarcated a vast territory into provinces, and placed the sovereign's husband in each one. The country was gradually turning into a state strictly controlled from a single center.

The emperor announced the cessation of all civil strife, took away all the weapons from the specific princelings and, having melted it down, ordered twelve large monuments of peace and prosperity to be cast.

The state invaded all areas of life:

• standardization of the metric system;
• approval of the canon of writing;
• carrying out monetary and judicial reforms;
• the formation of a clearly built hierarchy of bureaucratic people.

Interesting! Qin - the time of grandiose construction projects: the construction of the Great Wall of China, the construction of the emperor's tomb (with the famous terracotta army) and the majestic Elan Palace.

The entire empire is covered by road construction (the official length is 7500 kilometers).

The main reason for the short reign of the dynasty, historians call the opposition (at the level of the Emperor) to the ideas of Confucianism of the philosophy of legalism. Legalism ("school of lawyers") preached strict adherence to the letter of the law and extremely severe punishments for any liberties and faults. It was bloodthirsty cruelty that ruined the ruling dynasty. Qin Shi Huangdi died in 210 BC.

Han and Xin

The new ruler of the empire, Ershi Huang, was a weak man. The head of the imperial office, Zhao Gao, quickly "crushed" the weak-willed wang under him. The country was shaken by riots against the gray cardinal.

In 207 BC, the Emperor committed ritual suicide. Rebel leader Liu Bang won the race for power and established the Han dynasty (with a short break) to rule the country until 220 (longer than other royal dynasties).

Sinologists divide the reign into early (western stage) and later Han (with a short period of loss of power in the middle of the reign).

The ascension to the throne of the Han dynasty initiated numerous changes in the life of the country, which allowed society to “close ranks” and calm down. Bloodthirsty legalism was replaced by the restored Confucianism. The taxation of the peasants was reduced, the bureaucracy underwent serious purges. Life in the Celestial Empire began to enter the former channel of tranquility and prosperity. But the Huns' militant neighbors became more active on the borders. In an effort to avoid unnecessary bloodshed, the ruler Liu Bang concluded a peace agreement with the aggressors. The nomads agreed to retreat in exchange for huge annual payments (tribute).

The first head of the clan, Liu Bang, died in 195 BC. e. Over the following years, the Empire slowly slipped into decline. Western Han died out bloodlessly. After the death of the ruler of Ping-di, the throne peacefully passed to Wang Mang. Paying tribute to tradition, a new, short-lived Xin dynasty was created.

The founder of the ruling house Xin tried to reform the country, to reason with the slave owners, to rein in the top officials. The provinces were overwhelmed by chaos, bloody rebellions and uprisings. Wang Mang failed, was deposed and executed.

In the year 25, the second era of the Han reign began. The distant relatives of the former kings, the minor Guan Wudi, were brought to power.

The Eastern Han is famous for enthroning child emperors. Power-hungry regents and gray cardinals were burning their lives, pushing the dynasty to the edge of the abyss. In 184, the Yellow Turban Rebellion rocked the empire.

Riots were pacified by the army. The generals who entered into force divided the empire into three parts. The Han reign ended, the Three Kingdoms began.

The bloody confrontation between the former generals hastened the collapse of the Empire. The Jin era (265-316) began.

Nomads conquered the entire north of the country, the capital was moved from Luoyang to the south. Emperor Simia Yan carried out land use reforms that embittered the owners of large land plots. The invaders “teared off” entire provinces and huge cities from the country, forced the peasants to master the cultivation of rice necessary for nomads, and settled in river valleys in clans.

Buddhism, which came from India, was strengthened in the country: monasteries and temples were built everywhere.

Sui

In the Northern Zhou of the late sixth century, power was usurped by Chinese high officials and military leaders and sinicized Turkic leaders with a common leader Yang Jian.

The empire was oppressed by fragmentation. On the wave of complete popular approval, "Yan associates" united the country. In 581, Yang Jian ascended the throne under the "avatar" Wen-di and the motto Sui. Three hundred years of disunity ended, the Sui era began.

In a very short period of reign, the House of Sui managed to globally rebuild the protective wall, lay the Imperial Canal and build a majestic palace in the next capital of the state.

Interesting! The dynasty unified China after four centuries of disunity.

The leaders preserved the integrity of the country, strengthened the borders, consolidated the population.

Li Yuan founded the state of Tang, which lasted from 618 to 907. The founder's successor, Chief Li Shimin, crushed all the popular uprisings, executed the separatists, and announced a new imperial economic and political strategy. The Celestial Empire experienced a period of its highest power: economic ties were established with other states, agricultural crops (rice, tea, cotton) developed, cities and settlements were restored from the ruins.

The history of the ruling dynasty was interrupted by a "conspiracy of military governors". The leader of the conspirators, Huang Chao, destroyed the Tang in 901 and once again fragmented the empire into separate fiefdoms.

Evidence for the existence of the state

Historical research in 1928 documented the existence of the forerunner of Chinese statehood as early as 1600 BC.

Excavations in the vicinity of the Xiaotun settlement (northern Henan province) made a splash among modern sinologists. The ruins of a huge, ancient city, dwellings, artisan workshops, religious buildings, the imperial palace and three hundred tombs (four imperial tombs).

The excavations confirmed the existence of the state: the hierarchy of society (in addition to the graves of officials and merchants, many “poor” burials were found), the flourishing of crafts, religions and the undisputed power of the emperor, the lord with a “heavenly mandate”.

Natural conditions of that time

China is mountains, plateaus and river valleys. The western part of the country is the world's greatest highland with a sharply continental climate. The east of the state is the riverbeds flowing to the sea (all trade routes are concentrated here, the great silk road starts). The East is famous for its mild climate and diverse vegetation.

The prehistoric climate and natural conditions differed from the modern state of affairs. The north of the country was covered with forest, green areas stabilized the weather and contributed to the construction.

Modern researchers learn about protected forests only from numerous images, legends and myths.

Population

The commonality of the Yin and Chou people (first millennium BC) gave rise to the Chinese ethnic group. Neighbors, carriers of Paleo-Asiatic (in the north) and Austro-Asiatic (in the southeast) dialects participated in the formation of the population.

East, North and North-West of the country were inhabited by Chinese clans (shan, xia, zhou). The South and the South-West belonged to close-blood peoples, carriers of the Sino-Tibetan dialects. The North-East and the West belonged to the Mongols and Turkic formations.

What did you believe

The religions of the Empire were not personalized. In China, temples dedicated to a particular deity were not erected; priestly duties were performed by civil servants.

The ancient Chinese had three main religions (rather religious and philosophical currents): Buddhism, which came from India, the teaching of the Great Way, Taoism, and the illumination of Kung Fu Tzu - Confucianism.

Modern Sinology asserts that after the collapse of the Han Dynasty, an epoch-making transformation took place in the Empire: Antiquity was replaced by the medieval stage. The history of the country at this time consists of a grandiose series of events: frequent changes of ruling houses, long-term domination of the conquerors, numerous wars, rebellions, uprisings.

The imperial transition to the Middle Ages took place imperceptibly, without "destruction to the ground" as it was in Europe. The Chinese, who avoid changes, have shown wisdom and prudence here too. Everything was done slowly and gradually: in the Middle Ages, China quietly said goodbye to slave-owning traditions, carried out spiritual and religious transformations, restructured state structures and, most importantly, reassessed the moral foundations.

Periods of the Imperial Middle Ages

China in the Middle ("Dark") Ages experienced a change of several dynasties:

• 3rd-6th centuries - Time of Troubles (invasion of nomads, Three Kingdoms) legacy of the collapse of the Han;
• 589-618 - Sui rule;
• 618-907 - Tang rule;
• 907-960 - five ruling houses and ten states;
• 960-1279 - Song rule
• 1279-1368 - Yuan rule (Mongols);
• 1368-1644 - Ming rule;
• 1644-1911 - Qing rule.

Traditions and legends

The great people mixed the primitive folk beliefs, the rationality of Confucius, the rituals and mysticism of Taoism with the excessive spirituality of Buddhism. The empire gave rise to mythology for every day, for all occasions.

The history of the most ancient civilization has several millennia. Tremulous care for antiquities, legends and traditions is inherent in the Chinese of all times. The mythological heritage is carefully collected, systematized and universally regarded as a national treasure.

Myths, legends and the very history of ancient China reflect the worldview of society and the idea of ​​the Chinese about the structure of the world.

Conclusion

Periodization of the History of Ancient China: a series of ups and downs, circling in a spiral, but gradually soaring upwards. The great empire steadfastly overcame natural disasters, the aggression of nomads, numerous uprisings and rebellions... and steadily rose from the ashes, expanded its borders, assimilated the invaders and was saturated with imported culture, becoming better, stronger and more powerful.