Peculiarities of imperialism in leading capitalist countries (last third of the 19th – early 20th centuries)

1) The main trend in economic development at the end of the 19th century. was the transition from capitalism, based on free competition of individual independent enterprises, to capitalism, based on monopoly or oligopoly. This transition was based on changes in the productive forces caused by the rapid development of science and technology in the late 19th - early 20th centuries, called the second technological revolution. The first technological revolution was the industrial revolution. The second technological revolution unfolded in the last third of the 19th century. and continued until the First World War (19I4-1918). The change in the energy base of production was of utmost importance: steam energy was replaced by electric energy, electrification began, and the technology for receiving, transmitting and receiving electricity was developed. In the 80s of the XIX century. The steam turbine was invented, and as a result of its connection into a single unit with a dynamo, a turbogenerator was created. New industries emerged - electrochemistry, electrometallurgy, electric transport. Internal combustion engines appeared, powered by energy obtained from the combustion of gasoline and oil vapors. In 1885 the first car was built. The internal combustion engine began to be widely used in transport, in military equipment, and accelerated the mechanization of agriculture. The chemical industry has made significant progress: the production of artificial (aniline) dyes, plastics, and artificial rubber began; New effective technologies for producing sulfuric acid, soda, etc. were developed. Mineral fertilizers have become widely used in agriculture. The growth of industrial production and trade led to the development of transport. The power, traction and speed of steam locomotives have increased. The designs of steamships were improved. The electrification of railway transport began, new vehicles appeared - tankers and airships. The technological revolution has changed the sectoral structure of industry. Heavy industry came to the fore, significantly outstripping light industry in growth rates. Structural changes have caused a sharp increase in the minimum amount of capital required to create and operate a separate enterprise. Attracting additional capital was achieved through the issue of shares and the creation of joint stock companies. State property was formed in two main ways: through state budget funds and the nationalization of private enterprises. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. the first way was more common in most countries of the Old World; the second was used in countries of settler capitalism. Cooperative ownership arose on the basis of the voluntary association of capital and means of production of small commodity producers; served as a form of protection from exploitation by intermediaries and large entrepreneurs. From the middle of the 19th century. and before 1914 the main types of cooperation arose: consumer, credit, agricultural, housing. By the beginning of the First World War, Russia ranked first in the world in the number of participants in the cooperative movement. Municipal property and economy arose in connection with the development of socio-economic infrastructure (transport, electricity, gas supply, schools, hospitals) in cities and rural areas in the last third of the 19th century. The consolidation of production and the complication of the structure of the economy led to the transition to a new form of organization of production - a monopoly. The formation of the world economy was accompanied by territorial expansion - the creation of colonial empires and the subjugation of independent states. In the last quarter of the 19th century. The struggle of industrial states for territories in Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Ocean began. Great Britain, France, the USA, Japan, and smaller states - Belgium, Holland, Portugal, Spain - took part in colonial conquests and the creation of colonial empires. Many formally independent states in Asia, Africa and Latin America fell into the sphere of capital expansion. Thus, at the end of the 19th century. The process of formation of industrial capitalist society in Western and Central Europe and North America was completed. This was a zone of accelerated, “advanced” development of capitalism, its “first echelon”. Eastern Europe, including Russia, and in Asia - Japan, which took the path of reform, represented a zone of “catch-up development”. The era of structural and institutional changes at the beginning of the 20th century. were defined by the concept of “imperialism.” Later, the term “monopoly capitalism” became more widespread. The Frankfurt Peace Treaty of 1871, which ended the Franco-Prussian War, did not lead to the stabilization of international relations in Europe. On the contrary, the powerful economic breakthrough of Germany allowed Bismarck in the 70-80s of the 19th century. fight for German hegemony in Europe. This determines the course towards the militarization of the country, the creation of a constant military threat, especially to France, as well as attempts to create pro-German military-political blocs. In 1898, Germany began building a large navy, directly challenging Great Britain and other countries. In the last third of the 19th century. In Europe, the main contours of opposing coalitions emerged. They finally took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. and led European nations to the First World War.

2) France

France, despite its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, remained a great power with great economic capabilities, a huge colonial empire, a powerful army and a large fleet, which, however, was inferior to the English one. In terms of economic growth, France lagged behind Germany and the United States, and in terms of industrial production, it lagged behind England. In 1870-1871 France survived not only the war with Prussia, which ended in defeat for it, but also another revolution - the Paris Commune. These events devastated and bled the country. The total damage caused by the war amounted to 16 billion francs. The production of industrial products, the export of finished products and the import of raw materials, machinery, and fuel decreased sharply. The equipment of the enterprises was taken to Germany, many public buildings, warehouses, and storage facilities were destroyed; Everywhere in the occupation zone, forests were cut down, livestock were exported, and food supplies and agricultural raw materials were confiscated. The peace treaty of 1871 was signed on enslaving terms. France was obliged to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs in a short time, and as a guarantee of payment, part of its territory (18 departments) was subject to occupation by German troops. Their maintenance was entrusted to the French side. These expenses were not included in the indemnity. In addition, the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine passed into German possession. France was losing two economically developed areas. A serious factor in France's overall economic lag was the agrarian problems of French capitalism. The backwardness of agriculture was a consequence of the parcellation of agriculture. Backward agriculture hampered the development of the domestic market and industry, prevented the formation of the labor market, and slowed down population growth. The parcel farming was a patchwork sum of scattered pieces of land belonging to one owner. On tiny plots, millions of peasants could not even use draft animals. In an effort to expand the farm, the peasant either bought or rented additional plots of land. But having no capital or available funds, he was forced to take out loans secured by land, which led to debt and bondage. By the end of the 19th century. “free” small-scale peasants paid the moneylenders an annual tribute of 2 billion francs. The peasants' income was absorbed by paying interest, taxes, and debts. There were no funds left to improve the economy. The growth of debt contributed to the gradual transformation of the owner of a small plot into a formal owner of the land. At the end of the 19th century. In the French countryside, the process of formation of farms and the process of land concentration accelerated, with a simultaneous increase in the number of small-scale farms. The agrarian crisis has strengthened the tendency to transform livestock farming into the leading branch of agriculture, to change the structure of crop production in favor of industrial crops, and to increase the share of fruit and vegetable growing in the volume of production. The use of technology expanded, and the specialization of production in different regions of the country deepened. In 1892, the state increased duties on agricultural products imported into the country, which expanded the domestic market for domestic producers. An important reason for the economic lag was the peculiar structure of French industry. True, at the end of the 19th century. In France, as in other countries, there was an increase in the concentration of production. A number of joint stock companies emerged in other industries. However, along with large-scale production, medium and small industry still played a significant role. In general, heavy industry developed at a faster pace than light industry. New industries were created - electric power industry, automotive industry, locomotive engineering, and production of non-ferrous metals. Railway construction was of great importance for the country's economy, becoming a large market for many branches of heavy industry. From 1870 to 1900, the length of railways in France increased 2.5 times and reached 42.8 thousand km. In this period, France surpassed England and Germany in the length of railway lines. However, in terms of the number of enterprises and production volume, light industry occupied the leading place. France exported silk fabrics, perfumes and cosmetics, clothing, jewelry, and other luxury items to the world market. The production of these goods was concentrated in small enterprises using manual labor. French industry lagged sharply behind its main competitors in terms of technical level of production. Equipment installed at enterprises during the industrial revolution by the end of the 19th century. physically and morally outdated and required replacement. The construction of hydroelectric power stations began in the country, but its scale was insignificant. French industry experienced a shortage of raw materials and fuel, so it was forced to import significant quantities of coking coal and iron ore, ferrous metals, copper, and cotton. Expensive imported raw materials increased the cost of French goods and reduced their competitiveness on the world market. The rate of concentration was lower than in the USA, Germany, and England. The process of concentration developed unevenly. It took place at the fastest pace in heavy industry - metallurgical, mining, paper, and printing industries; slower in light industry. The concentration of production led to the formation of monopolies. In 1876, a metallurgical syndicate was created, uniting 13 largest metallurgical plants. In 1883, a sugar cartel emerged, and in 1885, a kerosene cartel. The largest monopolies were created in heavy industry. The process of monopolization covered the textile and food industries. The most typical forms of monopolistic associations in France were cartels and syndicates. However, concerns also emerged that united enterprises from related industries.

The rate of concentration and centralization of banking capital in France was exceptionally high. In this it took first place among other capitalist states. The formation of financial capital in France took place with the decisive role of banking capital. The French Bank became the center of the country's financial capital. The bank's 200 largest shareholders formed the top of the financial oligarchy, which concentrated economic and political power in the country in their hands. French Prime Minister Clemenceau acknowledged that in France, “members of the board of the French Bank” have full power. The economic development of France was hampered by the export of capital. Huge monetary resources were accumulated, which were not invested in the national economy, since profits received from small enterprises and farms were significantly lower than income from foreign investments and foreign securities. In addition, banks avoided dispersing funds among thousands of small enterprises and making themselves dependent on the success of their activities. In the 70s of the XIX century. French capital was invested in Turkey, Spain, Latin American countries, and from the beginning of the 80s - in Austria-Hungary, Russia. Since the 1980s, French capital exports have become predominantly the export of loan capital in the form of government loans and have acquired usurious characteristics. By 1914, the export of capital from France had more than tripled compared to the end of the 19th century. and almost quadrupled the investment in French industry. In terms of capital exports, France came in second place in the world, but was still inferior to England.

Japan monopolization economy imperialism cartel

Japanese victory in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895. had serious consequences for its further economic development. The indemnity received from China and the robbery of China and Korea became an additional source of capital for the Japanese economy. Particularly rapid growth in capital investment was observed in industry and transport. The leading branch of Japanese industry was still textile: spinning production was developing rapidly, and the volume of products produced by weaving enterprises from 1894 to 1898 more than doubled. The development of the mining and extractive industries has accelerated: the production of coal, iron ore, oil and other minerals has increased. Since the late 90s of the XIX century. the main attention was paid to the development of heavy industry, primarily metallurgy and mechanical engineering. Of the engineering industries, the most developed was shipbuilding, which was explained both by the island position of the country and by plans to prepare for a future war. Since the end of the 19th century. The issue of expanding colonial possessions on the Asian mainland was put on the agenda. In this regard, the development of Japanese industry began to become one-sided. Military industries gradually began to occupy a leading place in heavy industry. Enhanced militarization of the country - rearmament of the army and navy, increasing the level of military equipment, significant expansion of old and creation of new military enterprises - was carried out within the framework of the post-war economic development program adopted in 1895. The post-war program was designed for 10 years (1896-1905) and included the creation of a number of heavy, mainly military, industries, the reorganization and expansion of the armed forces. The industrial boom observed in the country since 1895 was interrupted by the financial and then economic crises of 1897-1898 and 1900-1902. The crises accelerated qualitative changes in the economy, indicating the beginning of the formation of monopoly capitalism in Japan. Since the second half of the 90s, large capitalist companies began to play an increasingly prominent role in the economic life of the country. By the beginning of the 20th century. cartels appeared in the textile, tobacco, flour-milling and other light industries. The construction of state enterprises contributed to the enrichment of large capital. Providing the government with funds for the construction of enterprises by subscribing to government loans, large capitalists received huge interest during construction, and after its completion, the enterprises were transferred by the government to the same large businessmen one after another for next to nothing. Despite the high share of state entrepreneurship, the position of private capital in heavy industry was strengthened. Large capital increasingly confidently occupied leading positions not only in the mining industry and shipbuilding, but also in manufacturing. At the beginning of the 20th century. Cartel associations were created in the cement, watch, and oil industries. In 1904, two large oil companies created a syndicate to counter the onslaught of the American Standard Oil company. Several large monopolistic associations took a dominant position in railway transport and maritime shipping. Japan's later entry into the path of capitalist development allowed it to create production based on advanced foreign technology and new organizational forms, which, given the existence of a huge number of small enterprises, immediately placed new enterprises in a monopoly position in the industries in which they operated. There were monopolistic associations, which included the bourgeoisie, grouped on the basis of belonging to a particular former feudal clan or region. During the technological revolution, the uneven economic development of the countries of Western Europe, the USA and Japan has increased; contradictions between former and future leaders of the world capitalist economy have intensified. England and France, who failed to adapt to the technological revolution, i.e. to update technological and institutional structures, weakened by the export of financial and human capital, were losing ground. The USA, Germany and Japan overcame the raw materials specialization of their economies thanks to the consistent implementation of national development strategies, effective institutional reforms, and accelerated investment in the most advanced sectors of production and communications, as well as in education, science and culture.

In the socio-economic development of Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. the main trend was the further development of capitalism in industry, the main manifestations of which indicated that it had reached a higher level. The economic features of this stage were: the formation of monopolies as a result of the concentration of production and centralization of capital, the merger of banking and industrial capital and the formation of a financial oligarchy, the export of capital, the economic and territorial division of the world.

Agriculture. In the 80-90s, agriculture was characterized by social differentiation of the peasantry. The reforms intensified the process of capital accumulation. The demand for agricultural products stimulated the development of both agriculture in general and its individual branches. During the transformation of agriculture into commercial production, specialized areas arose that contributed to the development of exchange between different regions of the country. The northern and central provinces became areas of commercial flax growing and meat and dairy farming, the black soil provinces, the Volga and Trans-Volga regions became areas of commercial grain farming. However, machines and new agricultural technology were rarely used, so grain yields grew slowly. The main suppliers of commercial grain were landowners, who kept the best part of the land for themselves after the reform. They had to rebuild the farm in a new way, which took time. Numerous feudal remnants, the dependence of the peasants on the landowners, and lack of experience slowed down the transition of the landowners' economy to capitalist principles. Capitalism developed most rapidly where there were fewer remnants of serfdom. Based on the methods of transformation of agriculture, it is possible to identify areas with a predominance of “Prussian” and “American” paths of development of capitalism. The “Prussian” path was characterized by the preservation of a significant number of remnants of feudalism, including a high degree of exploitation of the peasantry, the introduction of high redemption payments, and the preservation of the community. This type of farming prevailed in the Chernozem region and the Middle Volga region. The “American” path was distinguished by the intensive development of productive forces, the introduction of agricultural machines, the dissemination of advanced agricultural achievements, and freedom in the use of hired labor. It was typical for the North, Siberia, Trans-Volga region, Ukraine, and the North Caucasus. The resettlement policy undertaken by the Stolypin government had some success. She helped the economic and social development of new regions. New settlements gradually turned into large settlements with local governments. The government provided significant support to the development of the rural cooperative movement. The State Bank provided funds to credit partnerships. This was the first stage of the cooperative movement with the predominance of administrative forms of regulation of relations in the field of small credit. At the second stage, rural credit partnerships, having accumulated their own capital, could exist independently. Already by 1912, a system of small peasant credit had developed, consisting of savings and loan and credit partnerships. In 1911, the charter of the Moscow People's Bank was approved, which became the financial center of peasant credit cooperation. The reform accelerated the development of a market economy - the marketability of agriculture increased, and the demand for agricultural machinery, fertilizers, and consumer goods increased. All this contributed to the rise of industrial production.

Industry and trade. The reforms of the 60-70s gave a powerful impetus to the development of industrial production. An important indicator of this process was the increase in the proportion of the urban population and the change in its class-class structure. By the 1980s, the industrial revolution was completed in all sectors of the economy. In the main industries and transport, machine production has replaced manual technology. The water wheel and human muscle power were replaced by the steam engine. In Russia, the industrial revolution took place in two stages. In the 30s and 40s it was largely completed in the cotton industry, and in the 70s and 80s in railway transport and heavy industry. In the post-reform era, railway construction played a huge role in economic development. The creation of a developed railway network contributed to a significant expansion of the domestic market. The construction of railways was not only an indicator of economic growth, but also its stimulator. It contributed to the development of the mining, metallurgical, metalworking and engineering industries. The development of railway transport accelerated the development of agriculture, as it improved the possibilities for the sale and circulation of goods. All this created the conditions for the final formation of the all-Russian market and the further development of capitalist relations. One of the main results of large-scale railway construction was the vigorous development of the economy. Iron and steel and coal mining became major heavy industries. In the second half of the 90s, new machine-building plants were built. The high growth rates of heavy industry could not but affect the sectoral structure of the economy and the territorial distribution of industry. New types of production have emerged, such as oil, oil refining, and mechanical engineering. The rapid development of new territories affected the location of the fuel and metallurgical industries. Some areas retained an agricultural character. They supplied the cities with bread and agricultural raw materials and were consumers of industrial products. The uneven distribution of industry across the territory is one of the features of the development of capitalism in Russia. Economic changes in agriculture and industry could not but affect domestic and foreign trade. The forms of trade changed. Seasonal fairs persisted mainly in less developed areas. Trading companies with a developed network of shops and warehouses were created in large cities. Commodity exchanges were formed, which, as a rule, were of a specialized nature: grain, timber, manufacturing, etc. The market for industrial goods developed rapidly. A steady demand has formed for cars, agricultural tools, petroleum products, fabrics, and footwear. Not only the urban but also the rural population became consumers of goods. The volume of foreign trade turnover increased, which indicated that Russia was being drawn into the world market. The rapid development of the Russian economy was characterized by the penetration of foreign capital into industry, which was greatly facilitated by low customs tariffs and the granting of the right to foreign nationals to search for and extract minerals. Foreign capital was invested in oil production and oil refining, transport, as well as in the reconstruction of enterprises and the creation of complexes in the ferrous metallurgy. The investment process was dominated by investments from four countries - France, England, Germany, and Belgium. In the early 90s, the country entered a new stage of industrial development. As a result of industrial growth, it becomes one of the countries with an average level of capitalist development. Russia led in terms of growth rates and concentration of production. This was greatly facilitated by the widespread development of joint stock forms. Industry, as a rule, was headed by large share capital. After the dynamic development of the late 19th century. The industry, as well as the economy as a whole, entered a period of recession. General industrial development continued, but was very uneven. In 1909-1913 a new economic boom began. Industrial production increased at a particularly rapid pace. According to this indicator, Russia was ahead of England, France, Germany, and the USA. Receipts from industrial production in national income are almost equal to those from the agricultural sector. Industrial products covered 80% of domestic demand. Economic development contributed to the strengthening of monopolistic processes. The first monopolies appeared already in the late 70s of the 19th century. Thanks to the high level of concentration of economic resources, they created opportunities for accelerating technical progress and conditions for extracting high profits. The original form of monopolistic association was the cartel. The cartel was created as a temporary agreement of independent enterprises with the aim of establishing control over the market for a certain product. It provided for the establishment of mandatory minimum prices for goods for all participants; delimitation of sales areas, determination of the total volume of production or sales and the share of each participant in it, general conditions for hiring labor, exchange of patents, etc. For industry, the most typical was the creation of syndicate-type monopolies - agreements between independent enterprises on joint commercial activities while maintaining production activities. The first syndicates arose in industries related to railway construction. These were associations of enterprises producing rails, then factories producing fasteners for rail structures, building bridges, etc. The first industrial monopolies appeared in new industries, which testified to the extremely important role of railway construction for the economic development of the country. At the beginning of the 20th century. The most common form of monopolies were syndicates. They were created in heavy industries: mining, metallurgy, and mechanical engineering. Trusts began to form in the oil industry, which were characterized by the loss of commercial and production independence by the merging enterprises and their subordination to a single management. The owners who joined the trust became shareholders of the trust. Monopoly associations also appeared in the light and food industries, sugar, linen, jute, thread, and silk industries. However, the process of monopolization of light industry lagged behind the process of monopolization of heavy industry. By 1914, there were more than 200 monopolistic associations of various types in the country.

Finance. By 1861, the state of Russian finances was deplorable. The main source of replenishment of the treasury was the issue of paper money. The consequence of this was an increase in the budget deficit. For the development of a system of commercial credit in banking form, certain conditions were necessary: the development of trade relations, the accumulation of capital, the establishment of commercial ties in foreign trade and between individual regions within the country. In 1860, the State Bank was founded as the main issuing and credit institution responsible for the financial policy of the country. The State Bank did not have independence. He reported directly to the Ministry of Finance. General management was carried out by the bank council and the manager, who was appointed by the Senate. From 1860 to 1896, the State Bank financed the treasury, i.e. acted as a creditor to the state. Only in 1896 did its expenses equal the treasury amounts deposited in the State Bank. The complete liquidation of the state's debt to the bank occurred only in 1901. The second half of the 60s was characterized by the formation of the first private banks. In a relatively short time, an extensive banking system was formed. By the beginning of the 20th century. the country was covered by a network of industrial, commercial, mortgage banks that issued credits and loans secured by land property, numerous mutual credit societies and credit cooperatives, which combined in their activities the features of a savings bank and mutual aid bank, city banks that attracted deposits and carried out commodity lending. The areas of activity of banks varied significantly. Large St. Petersburg banks, such as Russian-Asian, St. Petersburg International Commercial, Azov-Don Commercial, Russian for Foreign Trade, Russian Commercial and Industrial, can be described as “business”. Thus, the Russian-Asian Bank practically maintained the Putilov plant, Russobalt, financed the military, oil, and tobacco industries; St. Petersburg International Commercial supported transport engineering, shipbuilding, and non-ferrous industries; Azovo-Donskoy - metallurgical, coal, sugar and textile enterprises; The Russian Bank for Foreign Trade and the Russian Commercial and Industrial Bank provided loans for large-scale trade operations. These banks were characterized by joint activities with foreign capital. The second financial group is the St. Petersburg banks, namely the Siberian Trade Bank, the Accounting and Loan Bank, the Private Commercial Bank, the Moscow United Bank and the Commercial Bank in Warsaw, which specialized in regional banking operations. Finally, the third financial group was represented by the Volga-Kama and Moscow merchant banks. These institutions were close in nature to the classical depository banks of the 19th century. The high share of transactions with deposits, the predominance of bill and commodity loans, the lack of connection with foreign capital and lending mainly to the textile industry, connection with the merchants gave reason to call them traditional.

Economic policy. Government policy in the economic sphere was formed and implemented on the basis of economic programs developed by the Ministry of Finance. Before the formation of the Ministry of Trade and Industry in 1905, this department concentrated the management of not only monetary circulation and loans, but also industry, trade, and railway construction. The Ministry of Finance developed long-term programs for the country's economic development and was responsible for their implementation. After the abolition of serfdom, M.Kh. was appointed Minister of Finance. Reitern. He prepared a long-term program for the economic development of Russia. It was based on the principle of a mixed economy and provided for a combination of public and private interests under the patronage of the Ministry of Finance and the State Bank. The Minister of Finance attached great importance to overcoming the monetary crisis and restoring the value of the ruble. To this end, the Ministry of Finance limited external borrowing, limited the export of capital abroad, reduced government spending, and carried out purchases of gold and silver. Particular attention was paid to the widespread attraction of foreign capital, since the shortage of free funds hampered industrial development. Customs policy was aimed at this, ensuring the protection of the developing domestic industry and facilitating the influx of foreign capital. The rules on concessions developed by the ministry made it possible to attract foreign capital to the implementation of Russian projects. As before, coverage was provided through external and internal loans. In 1892, the post of Minister of Finance was taken by S.Yu. Witte. He continued to implement the economic development programs of his predecessors. His economic program was aimed at achieving complete economic independence for Russia. The state played an active role in this process. According to Witte, encouraging domestic industry and agriculture was the most important task of public finance and the entire credit system of the country. Witte saw the industrialization of industry as the basis for economic and political stability. To achieve its goals, the program provided for increasing investment in industry, expanding industrial credit, stimulating private entrepreneurship, improving trade and payments balances, developing a network of general and vocational education, etc. Considering that domestic sources of financing for industrialization were insufficient, the program provided for the widespread attraction of foreign capital and the provision of guarantees to foreign investors. The key point of the economic program was the implementation of monetary reform. Russia switched to a gold standard system, which lasted until the First World War. Economic policies of this period included: traditional patronage of industry; measures to develop agriculture to expand the domestic market; limiting the public sector of the economy and encouraging private entrepreneurship; achieving a deficit-free budget and ensuring the stability of the financial system; attracting foreign capital to ensure the stability of the monetary system; development of foreign trade activities to cover external debt. Adhering to a strict emission policy, the government ensured a stable exchange rate for Russian securities, which aroused the confidence of foreign investors. This policy contributed to a powerful influx of foreign capital into the Russian economy, both in the form of loans to maintain gold circulation and in shareholder form.

Bibliography

History of Economics: textbook / edited by. ed. prof. O. D. Kuznetsova and prof. I. N. Shapkina. M., 2000. Ch. 7_8.

The eve of the socialist revolution. This brilliant conclusion of V.I. Lenin was soon fully confirmed in the course of historical development. The Great October Socialist Revolution marked the beginning of the era of transition from capitalism to socialism. For sixty years, the people of the USSR, and later of a number of other countries, have been building a new society, fundamentally different from the capitalist one. The world socialist system has taken shape and is strengthening. Since the victory of the October Revolution, capitalism has entered a period of general crisis - a historical period of decline and final collapse. The main feature of the general crisis of capitalism is the split of the world into two opposing social systems, capitalist and socialist. It is also manifested in the collapse of the colonial system of imperialism, in the struggle of a number of countries liberated from colonial dependence for a non-capitalist path of development, in the growing instability of the capitalist economy, the increasing uneven development of capitalist countries, in the intensification of the class struggle of the working people against the oppression of monopolies.

Imperialism made inevitable the struggle of international trusts and international monopoly unions for markets for goods, sources of raw materials, and areas for investment of capital. The imperialist powers absorb the overwhelming majority of the world's production of raw materials, but most of them do not have significant deposits of their own. The export of capital and the creation of branches or subsidiaries abroad have served and continue to serve as the main instrument for the penetration of monopolies into other countries. In an effort to obtain the highest profits, they enter into agreements among themselves on the division of world markets. The division of world markets, or the economic division of the world, becomes the most important feature of imperialism.

Despite all the changes that capitalism has undergone, the basic patterns of its development, determined by the essence of capitalist relations of production, are preserved. Therefore, in order to correctly understand the most essential features of the capitalist mode of production as a whole, to reveal its irreconcilable contradictions, it is necessary, first of all, based on the methodology of K. Marx, to comprehensively study free competition capitalism, i.e. pre-monopoly capitalism. First, we should clarify the laws of capitalist production, then move on to an analysis of the laws of circulation of capital and, finally, consider the processes of capitalist production, circulation, distribution and consumption in their unity and interaction. This will allow us to better understand the essence of capital and surplus value, to reveal the laws and categories that express the specific forms of their movement. The first part of the section is devoted to the consideration of all these problems - General foundations of the capitalist mode of production. The second part - Imperialism - the highest stage of capitalism - analyzes, firstly, the patterns of development of monopoly capitalism and, secondly, the effect of these patterns during the period of the general crisis of world capitalism.

Imperialism grew as a direct continuation and development of the basic properties of capitalism. Despite the fact that profound changes have occurred in the development of capitalist society, all the fundamental features of capitalism remain: capitalist private ownership of the means of production, the division of society into antagonistic classes, competition and anarchy of production. The economic laws of capitalism also operate at the stage of imperialism, but under the influence of new economic conditions they have other forms of manifestation.

Under the conditions of monopoly capitalism, all the main features of imperialism - the dominance of monopolies and finance capital, the export of capital, the division of the world by international monopolies and the largest monopoly powers - are the result of the law of surplus value, the result of the development of capitalist production in order to extract the greatest profit. Under these conditions, the forms of manifestation of the basic economic law of capitalism become monopoly profit and monopoly price. Monopolies receive high profits due to the sharp increase in exploitation of the working class, peasantry, urban petty bourgeoisie, and the peoples of backward colonial and semi-colonial countries.

The form of resolving the contradiction between the productive forces and bourgeois production relations is the socialist revolution. Capitalism does not voluntarily leave the historical arena. He resists fiercely and retreats fighting. The capitalist system is disintegrating under the blows of revolutionary forces. At the same time, the socialist system emerges, strengthens and develops. Thus, the main feature of the modern era is the split of the world into two opposing socio-economic systems, an irreconcilable struggle between them, during which socialism is gaining ever new positions, and imperialism is retreating.

IMPERIALISM is monopoly capitalism, its highest and final stage of development, decaying and dying capitalism, the eve of the socialist revolution. Its main distinctive feature and main, defining feature is the dominance of large monopoly capital in the economic, political, and ideological fields. A comprehensive, truly scientific analysis of the essence of imperialism was given by V.I. Lenin in his work Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism, published in 1917, as well as in a number of other works. The theory of imperialism developed by Lenin was the greatest contribution to Marxism, a new stage in its development. It equips the working people and Marxist-Leninist parties with an understanding of the most important features of modern capitalism, its deep contradictions, and exposes the methods that the imperialists use to maintain their rule. At the same time, it points to the paths that lead to the inevitable death of capitalism at its last stage and its replacement by socialism. Exploring the imperialist stage of capitalism, V.I. Lenin identified its main five economic features: 1) the concentration of production and capital, which reached such a high stage of development that it created monopolies that play a decisive role in economic life 2) the merger of banking capital with industrial capital and the creation on the basis of this financial capital of the financial oligarchy 3) the export of capital, in contrast to the export of goods, becomes particularly important 4) international monopoly unions of capitalists are formed, dividing the world 5) territorial trade is completed

Thus, basing the presentation, as noted, on the formational approach, in the analysis of pre-capitalist formations the team of authors tried to show the development during this period of precisely a number of relationships inherent in all the relationships of the natural-economic organization of production as a whole, peculiar relationships of personal dependence and associated forms exploitation, trace the line of origin and development of commodity relations. An attempt has been made to increase attention to such general aspects of development as improving human abilities, the action of a certain motivation in work, and the mechanism of market relations. In the presentation of capitalist relations of production there is no special section on imperialism. The main attention is paid to the consideration of the general features of cali-

The program adopted by the 3rd Congress of the CPV (19(il)) states that the main enemies of the Venezuelan revolution are American imperialism and latifundism. The program sets the main tasks of the revolution as complete economic and political liberation from American imperialism, a radical transformation of the agrarian structure through the elimination of the latifundist ownership of land, independent and progressive development of the national economy in all areas, consistent democratization of political life, which would allow the main problems of the nation and the masses to be resolved in a progressive way.The decisions of the 6th Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPV (Air. 1904) determined ways to achieve these goals Experience, accumulated in recent years, teaches us that the enemies of our revolution, led by American imperialism, will not allow the forces that advocate the elimination of their domination to come to power peacefully, therefore the path to achieve victory is the path of armed struggle... Conducting an armed struggle is not only excludes, but also presupposes the use of other forms of struggle. The 4th Congress of the CPV (Jan. 1971) comprehensively analyzed Ch. features and reasons for saving. V.'s backwardness and its dependence on Amer. imperialism and put forward ch. tasks of the struggle against imperialism and internal. reactions to open the way to comprehensive self-reliance and independent development of the country.

In the era of imperialism, capitalist technology. countries is acquiring new features. Decisive positions are captured by the largest monopolies, private capitalist. manufacturing and trading companies. They mainly control the sales (both on the domestic and foreign markets) of goods from small producers and non-monopolistic companies. enterprises (especially in agriculture). The dominance of monopolies and finance. capital sharply increases foreign trade. expansion, the region becomes one of the important means of extracting monopoly super-profits. During this era, capitalism developed significantly under the influence of the export of capital. As V.I. Lenin emphasizes, the export of capital abroad becomes a means of encouraging the export of goods abroad (ibid., vol. 27, p. 363). The export of capital is used to seize foreign markets and sources of raw materials, especially in colonial and dependent countries. Whatever the form in which capital is exported - in the form of loans, credits or direct investments - the predominant part of it is usually exported (directly or indirectly) in the form of goods, i.e. it leads to an increase in foreign trade. turnover. At the same time, income (interest and dividends) on capital exported abroad is paid by capital-importing countries, as a rule, also in commodity form. And this, in turn, contributes to the growth of world trade. Economy, the division of the world by the largest monopolies, and the creation of a colonial system of imperialism acted in the same direction (see Table 1).

Lit. Marx K., Capital, vol. 1, ch. 11 -13, 23-24 Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., 2nd ed., vol. 23 of his own, Capital, vol. 3, ch. 15, 27, ibid., vol. 25, part 1 Engels F., Anti-Dühring, department 3, ch. 1, ibid., v. 20 Marx K. and F., Manifesto of the Communist Party, ibid., v. 4 Lenin V.I., Development of capitalism in Russia, ch. 6, 7, Poly, collection. cit., 5th ed., vol. 3rd, Imperialism, as the highest stage of capitalism, ch. 1, 2, ibid., vol. 27 Novoselov S.P., The main contradiction of capitalism and modernity, M., 1974 Perlo V., Unsustainable economics, trans. from English, M., 1975, ch. 2 State-monopoly capitalism general features and features, M., 1975 Political economy of modern monopoly capitalism, 2nd ed., vol. 1, section 1, M., 1975 Pesenti A., Essays on the political economy of capitalism, trans. from Italian, vol. 1, ch. 12, 13, M., 1976.

Belarusian State University

History department

Department of New and Contemporary Times

Abstract on the topic:

Monopoly capitalism:

essence and main features. Imperialism

Prepared by:

4th year student, 3 groups

Sidorenko V.

Minsk, 2003

Monopoly capitalism: essence and main features. Imperialism

Industrialization contributed to the concentration (expansion) and centralization (unification) of production and capital. During the years of the second industrial revolution, priority was given to the newest branches of heavy industry, which became the basis for the economy. According to their technical characteristics, these were complex and large industries with a continuous technological cycle (for example, steel production). The widespread introduction of the latest technical achievements and conveyor systems into production, the standardization of products, the creation of a new energy base, and an extensive transport infrastructure provided large enterprises with high profitability. At the same time, large-scale production was characterized by high capital intensity. This limited the possibilities for their further development, since it exceeded the capabilities of individual entrepreneurs. In this regard, at the time under review, the process of creating joint-stock companies (corporations) began. They were enterprises that accumulated individual capital and personal savings through the issuance of shares, giving their owners the right to receive part of the income - dividends. Thus, along with the individual, a collective form of private property appears Bernal, D. Science in the history of society. M., 1956. P. 28.

The massive creation of joint stock companies took place in Western countries in the last third of the 19th century, primarily in new industries that required large amounts of advanced capital (electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical, transport). This process became decisive in the economic development of Western countries at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. It has reached a particularly large scale in the USA and in the “second tier” countries, primarily in Germany. For example, in the USA, almost 1/2 of all industrial production was in the hands of 1/100 of the total number of enterprises. Based on a high degree of concentration of production and centralization of capital, the process of formation of monopolies began. Monopolies are contracts, agreements regarding a single market strategy (price level, division of sales markets and sources of raw materials), concluded with the aim of ensuring dominance in the market and obtaining super-profits Braudel, F. Dynamics of Capitalism. Smolensk, 1993. P. 15.

The emergence of monopolies is the main feature of the new stage of development of capitalism; in this regard, it is designated as monopoly. The tendency towards monopoly domination of the market is inherent in the very nature of capitalism. As F. Braudel notes, capitalism has always been monopoly. The pursuit of high profits presupposes fierce competition, a struggle for a dominant position, for a monopoly in the market. However, at the previous stages of the development of a market economy (XV-XVIII centuries), monopolies of a different type were created - “closed”, protected by legal restrictions, and “natural”, which arose due to the specific use of certain resources. “Closed” and “natural” monopolies existed permanently in the capitalist economy, more like an isolated phenomenon, which practically excluded their dominance. The dominance of monopolies was also impossible at the stage of “classical capitalism”: with a huge number of independent enterprises in each industry, there was no tangible superiority of one enterprise over another, and the only law of their existence and survival was free competition.

In the conditions of the industrial economy, a new type of “open” monopolistic associations emerged. They were generated by the very elements of the market, the logic of competition. At a certain stage in the development of capitalism, entrepreneurs faced an alternative: either the deployment of exhausting competition, or the coordination among themselves of the most important areas of production and market activity. The first option was extremely risky, the second was, in fact, the only acceptable one. The high degree of concentration of production determined both the possibility and the need to coordinate the sales and production of products by leading manufacturers. The opportunity was created by the actual consolidation of production, which reduced the number of competing enterprises and facilitated the process of harmonizing the policies of producers on the market. The need was generated by the vulnerability of large capital-intensive enterprises, primarily heavy industry - metallurgy, engineering, mining, oil refining. They could not quickly respond to market conditions and, in this regard, needed stability and special guarantees of competitiveness. The first monopolies appeared in these industries. Braudel, F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism. XV--XVIII centuries M., 1986-1992. T. 1--3.

Thus, the development that unfolded at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. monopolization was a consequence of the development of the process of concentration and centralization of production and capital, the further complication of economic relations. The emergence of open monopolies reflected the formation of a special model of production organization and the transition of the capitalist economy to the monopolistic stage.

At the time under review, monopolistic associations were formed, as a rule, within one industry (horizontal integration), and various industry monopolies arose. These were mainly cartels, syndicates and trusts. A cartel is the lowest form of monopolistic associations, which is an agreement between independent enterprises in the same industry on prices, sales markets, production quotas for all participants, and the exchange of patents. Syndicate is a stage of monopolization in which enterprises in the industry, while maintaining legal and production independence, combine their commercial activities and create single offices for the sale of products. A trust is a higher form of monopoly, where both sales and production are combined, enterprises are subject to a single management, retaining only their financial independence. It is one giant entity that dominates the industry. The highest form of monopolization at the beginning of the 20th century was a concern. Such a monopoly was usually created in related industries and was distinguished by a unified financial system and market strategy. The concern often retained production independence, but the integration of capital provided the closest ties compared to other forms of monopolistic associations. Depending on the national specifics of economic development, the level of concentration of production and centralization of capital, various forms of monopolistic unions have become widespread in individual countries. Thus, cartels took a leading position in the German economy, syndicates in France and Russia, trusts in the USA. Concerns became more widespread later, from the beginning of the 20th century. Attention should be paid to the features of the monopolization process in the “second echelon” countries. Forced modernization here was accompanied by the creation of a highly concentrated industry. This contributed to the rapid and widespread monopolization of the economic system and the creation of the largest monopolies. German history in modern and modern times: in 2 volumes. M., 1970. Vol. 1. pp. 21-22.

1860s were the ultimate stage in the development of free competition. The first monopolies began to be created after the economic crises of 1873 and 1882. Since that time, a new type of market relations has been formed, in which free competition turns into monopolistic. In the last third of the 19th century. monopolies were still fragile and often had a temporary nature. Only at the beginning of the 20th century. After the economic crisis of 1900-1903, which led to a new wave of bankruptcies, monopolization took on a wide scale, mass production became dominant in industry. Now monopolies began to be created in traditional industries that formed the basis of “classical capitalism,” including agriculture. This contributed to the completion of the transition to monopoly capitalism. As a result, a special economic model was formed, focused primarily on the development of mass production. This production development strategy led to a sharp increase in economic growth rates in Western countries. So, from 1903 to 1907. the total capacity of industrial production increased by 40-50%. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century. the mechanism of monopolistic competition and the system of mass production became decisive in the economic system of Western countries Erofeev, N. A. Essays on the history of England (1815--1917). M., 1959. P. 34. .

The dominance of monopolies has not eliminated competition, which is the main driving force of a market economy. However, under the conditions of monopoly capitalism it has become significantly more complicated. Now competition between large monopolies within individual industries, national economies, and throughout the entire world economy has acquired decisive importance. After the crisis of 1900-1903, when the share of the monopolized sector sharply increased in the economies of leading Western countries, intra-industry competition was significantly limited. However, the absolute dominance of monopolies within entire industries was an exception. Basically, the situation was where several leading monopoly groups were fighting for control of the industry market. This model is called oligopoly. In addition, there was a fierce struggle between the monopolies and the non-monopoly sector, the “outsiders.” At the same time, the activities of monopolies, as powerful producers possessing the latest technological base, distorted pricing and upset the balance of supply and demand. In such a situation, small and medium-sized non-monopolized enterprises often went bankrupt, especially during periods of economic crises. In general, the monopolization of the economy blocked the natural mechanisms of market self-regulation and significantly complicated the exit from the crisis.

Large production needed large loans, often beyond the reach of individual banks. In this regard, the banking sector was swept by the process of centralization: at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. and here the creation of joint-stock companies and monopolies became widespread. Accordingly, the role of banks changed noticeably: from modest intermediaries in payments, they turned into all-powerful financial monopolies controlling the production sector. The Frankfurt Newspaper, which represented stock exchange interests, noted at that time: “With the increasing concentration of banks, the circle of institutions to which one can generally turn for a loan is narrowing, as a result of which the dependence of large industry on a few banking groups is increasing. With the close connection between industry and the world of financiers, the freedom of movement of industrial societies in need of banking capital turns out to be constrained. Therefore, large industry looks at the increasing trusting of banks with mixed feelings” Lenin, V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. M., 1977. P. 11. .

The new role of banks naturally presupposed their close interaction with industry, the merging of banking and industrial capital. The noted process occurred both through the ownership of shares and through the entry of bank directors into members of the supervisory boards of commercial and industrial enterprises and vice versa. For example, in 1910, 6 Berlin banks, through their board members, were represented in 751 industrial societies, and 51 major industrialists were on the supervisory boards of the same banks. The merger of banking monopolies with industrial monopolies led to the formation of a new form of functioning of capital - the financial-industrial group (according to Marxist terminology - financial capital). If pre-monopoly capitalism is characterized by the differentiation of capital into 3 types - trade, loan and industrial, then at its monopoly stage a single form is formed. Thus, the financial-industrial group (financial capital) is banking monopoly capital, fused into a single system with production (industrial or agricultural) monopoly capital. As a result, grandiose banking and industrial empires and powerful dynasties of steel, oil, newspaper and other kings emerged. During the period under review, financial and industrial groups were, as a rule, of a family-dynastic nature: Morgans, Rockefellers, Duponts, Rothschilds, etc. Ivanyan, E.A. US History / E.A. Ivanyan. M., 2004. P. 26. .

Financial and industrial groups were personified by the financial oligarchy - a new capitalist elite, consisting of the top of the monopoly bourgeoisie and leading managers of the largest corporations. During the period of “classical capitalism,” the top of bourgeois society was represented by the old landed aristocracy, and the bourgeoisie, although it belonged to the ruling class, only participated in power. Now, at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. The elite of bourgeois society - the financial oligarchy - finally emerged.

As a result of the concentration of production and capital, monopolies acquired enormous wealth and, accordingly, enormous power over the national economy and society as a whole. For example, the first trust in US history - Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company - was created in 1879, and in the 1880s. he already controlled about 90% of the country's oil enterprises. In Germany, during the same period, 85% of steel production was under the control of the “Union of Ruhr and Saarland Tycoons”; only 2 enterprises each dominated the German electrical and chemical industries. Monopolies had a noticeable impact on the socio-political development of society; they also shaped the style of consumption. It was at this stage that a consumer society was formed - a society focused on material values.

With the development of machine production, the international division of labor deepened, the interdependence of countries increased, and the exchange of goods on the world market increased. The process of monopolization caused a new round in the expansion of international economic relations. The mass production model has turned the entire world space into a single potential market for the economies of the leading powers. This indicated the completion of the formation of the world capitalist economy at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. With the advent of the dominance of monopolies, new important signs appeared in the development of world economic relations. First of all, this is the wide scale of capital export. In the pre-monopoly period, the most typical type of export was the export of goods; now the export of capital has become a more profitable type of export, forming a single world financial market. Only in the first 13 years of the 20th century. The volume of foreign capital investments from leading Western countries has doubled. F. Braudel considers the export of capital in the context of the center-periphery relationship: “As long as capitalism remains capitalism, the excess capital is not used to increase the standard of living of the masses in a given country, for this would be a decrease in the profits of the capitalists, but to increase profits by exporting capital abroad , to backward countries. In these backward countries, profits are usually high, because capital is scarce, the price of land is comparatively low, wages are low, and raw materials are cheap. The possibility of the export of capital is created by the fact that a number of backward countries have already been drawn into the circulation of world capitalism, the main lines of railways have been built or started, elementary conditions for the development of industry have been provided, etc.” Thus, the export of capital is due to the desire of monopolies for more profitable investment of capital.

As the export of capital grows, the foreign ties of national monopolies expand, and the consequence of this is another new foreign economic feature of capitalism - the formation of international monopolies. The latter are monopolistic associations that dominate in a particular industry and divide among themselves world markets, sources of raw materials and areas of capital investment, i.e., carrying out the economic division of the world. Their emergence is quite natural: the emergence of the largest monopolies striving to obtain the greatest profits, on the one hand, and intense competition between them, on the other, made agreements between these giants inevitable. In this regard, at the end of the 19th century. The first international associations began to be created: the International Syndicate for the Sale of Steel Rails (1883), the North Atlantic Steamship Union (1892), and the International Dynamite Cartel (1896). In the first decade of the 20th century. the formation of international monopolies has already taken on a wide scale. The export of capital and the formation of international monopolies led to the division of the world market into spheres of influence between the financial groups of the leading powers Manykin, A.S. New and recent history of European and American countries. M., 2004. P. 7. .

The economic division of the world is carried out in accordance with the economic power of national monopolies. At the same time, the natural unevenness of the economic development of countries, associated with various internal and external circumstances, can change the ratio of the economic potentials of monopolistic groups. In this regard, a third new feature of capitalism is identified, which is more of a foreign policy order - the intensification of the struggle between national monopolies, leading to the territorial division and redivision of the world between the great powers. This situation arose, firstly, from the very nature of monopolies striving for undivided dominance in the market, and secondly, from the nature of still young monopolies that had an imperfect structure. They acted, as a rule, within the same industry and were therefore very inflexible and vulnerable. In the event of unfavorable market conditions, industry monopolies did not have the opportunity to maneuver by pumping capital into the most profitable production. In this regard, they needed additional guarantees. The latter were ensured as much as possible by the territorial, i.e., political division of the world between countries. Thus, the dominance of monopolies in the economy inevitably gave rise to their desire for political dominance in order to strengthen influence in the conquered territories.

The struggle between national monopolies for the territorial division of the world was expressed, first of all, in the intensification of the struggle for colonies and spheres of influence. At the same time, at the time under review, it acquired a new quality - the purpose of seizing colonies was no longer only their economic exploitation, but also blocking the possible strengthening of the positions of other powers. As a result, expansion spread to hard-to-reach, sparsely populated territories. At the turn of the century, the hitherto free spaces of the African and Pacific regions were practically divided. By the beginning of the 20th century. the colonial seizure of unoccupied lands was completed - therefore, the territorial division of the world between the great powers was completed. This led to a new round of struggle - for the redistribution of already established spheres of influence and the redivision of an already divided world. Such a situation greatly increased the likelihood of using the force factor in the politics of the great powers and the outbreak of wars. This was evidenced by the international situation at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries: acute conflicts did not stop between the leading powers until the First World War Leuberg, M.Ya. History of Economics. M., 1997. .

At the end of the 19th century. On the pages of scientific and popular publications, in the press, the concept of “imperialism” (from the Latin imperium - power, domination) began to appear quite often. Researchers and publicists of that time unanimously emphasized the expansionist nature of capitalism and in this regard defined it as “imperialism.” Thus, the French historian J.-E. Driot noted in 1900: “During recent years, all free places on earth, with the exception of China, have been occupied by the powers of Europe and North America. On this basis, several conflicts and shifts of influence have already occurred, which are a harbinger of more terrible explosions in the near future. For we have to hurry: nations that do not provide for themselves risk never getting their share and not taking part in that gigantic exploitation of the earth, which will be one of the most significant facts of the next (i.e. 20th) century. That is why all of Europe and America have recently been gripped by the fever of colonial expansion, of “imperialism,” which is the most remarkable characteristic of the end of the 19th century.” The English economist J. Hobson, in his work “Imperialism” (1902), subjected a deep analysis to this period and designated 1880-1900. as an era of increased expansion (expansion of territory) of the main European states: “At the end of the 19th century. Especially since the 1880s, all capitalist powers have been pursuing colonies. Colonial possessions expanded after 1876 on a gigantic scale: more than one and a half times. Three powers did not have any colonies in 1876 (Germany, USA, Japan), and the fourth, France, had almost none. ...By 1914, these four powers had acquired colonies covering an area of 14.1 million km2...with a population of almost 100 million. The unevenness in the expansion of colonial possession is very great." Thus, contemporaries viewed imperialism, first of all, as a policy of broad expansion pursued by the leading powers at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century in Mayevsky, V.I. Kondratieff cycles, economic evolution and economic genetics. M., 1994. .

Modern historical science defines the phenomenon of imperialism more broadly, based on the essence formed at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. a special economic model focused on an abstract mass market, achieving undivided financial power, unlimited economic growth. In this regard, imperialism is a period in the development of industrial civilization and monopoly capitalism, characterized by the total expansion of the industrial system. Its chronological framework covers the last third of the 19th century. -- 20s XX century The defining feature of imperialism was expressed in the desire of leading countries for broad territorial conquests. At the turn of the XIX--XX centuries. The first imperialist wars took place between the major colonial powers for the redistribution of an already divided world: the Spanish-American (1898) and the Anglo-Boer (1899-1902).

List of sources and literature

1. Bernal, D. Science in the history of society. M., 1956.

2. Braudel, F. Material civilization, economics and capitalism. XV--XVIII centuries M., 1986-1992. T. 1--3.

3. Braudel, F. Dynamics of capitalism. Smolensk, 1993.

4. Vipper, R.Yu. History of modern times / R. Yu. Vipper. Kyiv, 1997.

5. German history in modern and contemporary times: in 2 volumes. M., 1970. T. 1.

6. Erofeev, N.A. Essays on the history of England (1815--1917). M., 1959.

7. Erofeev, N.A. Industrial revolution in England. M., 1965.

8. Ivanyan, E.A. History of the USA / E. A. Ivanyan. M., 2004.

9. Lenin, V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. M., 1977.

10. Leuberg, M.Ya. History of Economics. M., 1997.

11. Mayevsky, V.I. Kondratieff cycles, economic evolution and economic genetics. M., 1994.

12. Manykin, A.S. New and recent history of European and American countries. M., 2004.

What are the characteristic features of the new imperialism. The main features of the era of imperialism at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. When did imperialism arise?

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