2.1 Romanticism in Russian literature

Russian romanticism, in contrast to European with its pronounced anti-bourgeois character, retained a strong connection with the ideas of the Enlightenment and adopted some of them - the condemnation of serfdom, the promotion and defense of education, and the defense of popular interests. The military events of 1812 had a huge impact on the development of Russian romanticism. The Patriotic War caused not only the growth of civil and national self-awareness of the advanced strata of Russian society, but also the recognition of the special role of the people in the life of the national state. The theme of the people has become very significant for Russian romantic writers. It seemed to them that, comprehending the spirit of the people, they were attached to the ideal principles of life. The desire for nationality marked the work of all Russian romantics, although their understanding of the "people's soul" was different.

So, for Zhukovsky, nationality is, first of all, a humane attitude towards the peasantry and, in general, towards poor people. He saw its essence in the poetry of folk rituals, lyrical songs, folk signs and superstitions.

In the works of the romantic Decembrists, the idea of ​​the people's soul was associated with other features. For them, the national character is a heroic character, a national identity. It is rooted in the national traditions of the people. They considered such figures as Prince Oleg, Ivan Susanin, Yermak, Nalivaiko, Minin and Pozharsky to be the brightest spokesmen for the people's soul. Thus, Ryleev's poems "Voinarovsky", "Nalivaiko", his "Dumas", A. Bestuzhev's stories, Pushkin's southern poems, later - "The Song about the Merchant Kalashnikov" and the poems of the Caucasian Lermontov cycle are devoted to an understandable folk ideal. In the historical past of the Russian people, romantic poets of the 1920s were especially attracted by crisis moments - periods of struggle against the Tatar-Mongol yoke, free Novgorod and Pskov - against autocratic Moscow, struggle against the Polish-Swedish intervention, etc.

Romantic poets' interest in national history was engendered by a sense of high patriotism. Russian romanticism, which flourished during the Patriotic War of 1812, took it as one of its ideological foundations. In artistic terms, romanticism, like sentimentalism, paid great attention to depicting the inner world of a person. But unlike the sentimentalist writers, who sang "quiet sensibility" as an expression of "languid and sorrowful heart", romantics preferred the depiction of extraordinary adventures and violent passions. At the same time, the undoubted merit of romanticism, especially its progressive direction, was the identification of an effective, strong-willed principle in a person, the desire for high goals and ideals that lifted people above everyday life. Such a character was, for example, the work of the English poet J. Byron, whose influence was experienced by many Russian writers of the early 19th century.

A deep interest in the inner world of a person caused romantics to be indifferent to the external beauty of the heroes. In this, romanticism also radically differed from classicism with its obligatory harmony between the appearance and the inner content of the characters. Romantics, on the contrary, sought to discover the contrast between the external appearance and the spiritual world of the hero. As an example, we can recall Quasimodo ("Notre Dame Cathedral" by V. Hugo), a freak with a noble, exalted soul.

One of the important achievements of romanticism is the creation of a lyrical landscape. For romantics, it serves as a kind of decoration that emphasizes the emotional intensity of the action. In the descriptions of nature, its "spirituality" was noted, its relationship with the fate and fate of man. A brilliant master of the lyrical landscape was Alexander Bestuzhev, already in whose early stories the landscape expresses the emotional overtones of the work. In the story "The Revel Tournament" he depicted the picturesque view of Revel in this way, corresponding to the mood of the characters: "It was in the month of May; the bright sun rolled towards noon in transparent ether, and only in the distance the canopy of the sky touched the water with a silvery cloudy fringe. The bright spokes of the Revel bell towers burned on the bay, and the gray loopholes of Vyshgorod, leaning on a cliff, seemed to grow into the sky and, as if overturned, pierced into the depths of the mirror waters. one

The originality of the themes of romantic works contributed to the use of a specific dictionary expression - an abundance of metaphors, poetic epithets and symbols. So, the sea, the wind was a romantic symbol of freedom; happiness - the sun, love - fire or roses; in general, pink color symbolized love feelings, black - sadness. The night personified evil, crime, enmity. The symbol of eternal variability is a sea wave, insensibility is a stone; images of a doll or a masquerade meant falsehood, hypocrisy, duplicity.

V. A. Zhukovsky (1783-1852) is considered to be the founder of Russian romanticism. Already in the first years of the 19th century, he became famous as a poet, glorifying bright feelings - love, friendship, dreamy spiritual impulses. A large place in his work was occupied by lyrical images of his native nature. Zhukovsky became the creator of the national lyrical landscape in Russian poetry. In one of his early poems, the elegy "Evening", the poet reproduced a modest picture of his native land in this way:

All is quiet: the groves are sleeping; peace in the neighborhood

Stretched out on the grass under the bowed willow,

I listen how it murmurs, merged with the river,

A stream overshadowed by bushes.

A reed sways over the stream,

The voice of the noose, sleeping in the distance, wakes the villages.

In the grass of the crotch I hear a wild cry... 2

This love for the depiction of Russian life, national traditions and rituals, legends and tales will be expressed in a number of Zhukovsky's subsequent works.

In the late period of his work, Zhukovsky did a lot of translations and created a number of poems and ballads of fabulous and fantastic content ("Ondine", "The Tale of Tsar Berendey", "The Sleeping Princess"). Zhukovsky's ballads are full of deep philosophical meaning, they reflect his personal experiences, and reflections and features inherent in romanticism in general.

Zhukovsky, like other Russian romantics, was characterized to a high degree by the desire for a moral ideal. This ideal for him was philanthropy and independence of the individual. He asserted them both with his work and with his life.

In the literary work of the late 20-30s, romanticism retained its former positions. However, developing in a different social environment, it acquired new, original features. The thoughtful elegies of Zhukovsky and the revolutionary pathos of Ryleyev's poetry are being replaced by the romanticism of Gogol and Lermontov. Their work bears the imprint of that peculiar ideological crisis after the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, which was experienced by the public consciousness of those years, when betrayal of former progressive convictions, tendencies of self-interest, philistine "moderation" and caution were revealed especially clearly.

Therefore, in the romanticism of the 30s, the motives of disappointment in modern reality, the critical principle inherent in this trend in its social nature, the desire to escape into some ideal world, prevailed. Along with this - an appeal to history, an attempt to comprehend modernity from the standpoint of historicism.

The romantic hero often acted as a person who had lost interest in earthly goods and denounced the powerful and rich of this world. The opposition of the hero to society gave rise to a tragic attitude, characteristic of the romanticism of this period. The death of moral and aesthetic ideals - beauty, love, high art predetermined the personal tragedy of a person gifted with great feelings and thoughts, in Gogol's words, "full of rage."

Most vividly and emotionally, the mindset of the era was reflected in poetry, and especially in the work of the greatest poet of the 19th century, M. Yu. Lermontov. Already in his early years, freedom-loving motifs occupy an important place in his poetry. The poet warmly sympathizes with those who actively fight against injustice, who rebel against slavery. In this regard, the poems "To Novgorod" and "The Last Son of Liberty" are significant, in which Lermontov turned to the favorite plot of the Decembrists - Novgorod history, in which they saw examples of republican freedom of distant ancestors.

The appeal to national origins, folklore, characteristic of romanticism, is also manifested in Lermontov's subsequent works, for example, in "The Song about Tsar Ivan Vasilyevich, a young guardsman and a daring merchant Kalashnikov." The theme of the struggle for the independence of the Motherland is one of the favorite themes of Lermontov's work - it is especially brightly covered in the "Caucasian cycle". The Caucasus was perceived by the poet in the spirit of Pushkin's freedom-loving poems of the 1920s - its wild majestic nature was opposed to "captive soulful cities", "the dwelling of liberty of the saint" - to the "country of slaves, the country of masters" of Nikolaev Russia. Lermontov warmly sympathized with the freedom-loving peoples of the Caucasus. So, the hero of the story "Izmail Bey" refused personal happiness in the name of the liberation of his native country.

The same feelings possess the hero of the poem "Mtsyri". His image is full of mystery. The boy, picked up by a Russian general, languishes as a prisoner in a monastery and passionately yearns for freedom and homeland: “I knew power only by thought,” he admits before his death, “One, but fiery passion: She lived like a worm in me, Gnawed my soul and burned it. My dreams called From stuffy cells and prayers To that wonderful world of worries and battles Where rocks hide in the clouds Where people are as free as eagles...". 3 Longing for the will merges in the consciousness of a young man with longing for his homeland, for a free and "rebellious life", to which he so desperately aspired. Thus, Lermontov's favorite heroes, like the romantic heroes of the Decembrists, are distinguished by an active strong-willed beginning, an aura of chosen ones and fighters. At the same time, Lermontov's heroes, unlike the romantic characters of the 1920s, foresee the tragic outcome of their actions; the desire for civic activity does not exclude their personal, often lyrical plan. Possessing the features of the romantic heroes of the previous decade - increased emotionality, "ardor of passions", high lyrical pathos, love as "the strongest passion" - they carry the signs of the time - skepticism, disappointment.

The historical theme became especially popular among romantic writers, who saw in history not only a way of knowing the national spirit, but also the effectiveness of using the experience of past years. The most popular authors who wrote in the genre of the historical novel were M. Zagoskin and I. Lazhechnikov.

2.2 Romanticism in Russian fine art

The emergence and development of romanticism in Russian fine arts belongs to the same period when this process takes place in literature and in the theater.

Romanticism in painting and sculpture was generated by the same social factors as in literature. Both had common basic features. However, romanticism in the visual arts, in contrast to literary romanticism, received a more complex refraction, combined for the most part with elements of classicism or sentimentalism. Therefore, in the works of masters, even the most typical for this trend, such as B. Orlovsky, F. Tolstoy, S. Shchedrin, O. Kiprensky, the influence of different artistic movements is clearly felt. In addition, again, unlike literary romanticism, where the currents of active and passive romanticism were clearly separated "in the visual arts, this demarcation is less clear. And the very manifestation of democratic, Protestant sentiments in Russian painting and sculpture manifested itself completely differently than in literature. So, there are no works here like, for example, Ryleev's Thoughts or Pushkin's "Liberty". The principles of active romanticism find a different expression in Russian fine art. They are manifested primarily in interest in a person, his inner world; Moreover, unlike academicism, the artist is attracted by the human Personality in itself, regardless of noble origin or high position in society.

Deep feelings, fatal passions attract the attention of artists. A sense of the drama of the surrounding life, sympathy for the progressive ideas of the era, the struggle for the freedom of the individual and the people penetrates into the sphere of art.

However, the path from classicism to a new vision of the world and its artistic depiction was not easy and fast. The classicist tradition was preserved for many years even in the works of masters who, in their views and artistic quests, gravitated towards romanticism. This distinguishes the work of many artists in the 20-40s of the XIX century, including K. Bryullov.

Karl Bryullov was perhaps the most famous Russian artist of the first half of the 19th century. His painting "The Last Day of Pompeii" (See Appendix 1) not only aroused the extraordinary delight of his contemporaries, but also brought European fame to the theme.

Having visited the excavations in Herculaneum and Pompeii, Bryullov was shocked by the picture of their terrible death. The idea of ​​a new canvas dedicated to the image of this disaster is gradually maturing. For two years, preparing to paint a picture, the artist immersed himself in the study of written sources and archaeological materials, made many sketches, and searched for the most expressive compositional solution. By 1833, work on the painting was completed.

The basis of the work by the artist was an idea characteristic of romanticism - the confrontation of people against the cruel forces of nature. This idea was also solved in the spirit of romanticism by depicting a mass folk scene (and not a hero surrounded by secondary characters, as required by the classic tradition), and the attitude towards a natural disaster is expressed through the feeling, psychology of individuals. However, the interpretation of the plot contains clear features of classicism. Compositionally, the picture represents a number of human groups united by a common horror of the eruption, but reacting differently to the danger: while devoted children are trying to save their elderly parents at the risk of their own lives, greed prompts others, forgetting about human duty, to use panic for their own enrichment. And in this moralizing division of virtue and vice, as well as in the perfect beauty and plasticity of people stricken with horror, one can feel the clear influence of the classic canons. This was also noticed by the most observant contemporaries. So, N. V. Gogol in an article devoted to Bryullov's painting, highly appreciating it as a whole "as a bright resurrection of our painting, which has been in some kind of semi-lethargic state for a long time", nevertheless, among other considerations, notices that the beauty of the figures, created by the artist drowns out the horror of their situation. 4 The influence of classicism is also noticeable in the color scheme of the picture, in the illumination of the foreground figures, in the conditional purity and brightness of colors.

An example of the most vivid expression of romantic features in the visual arts is the work of O. A. Kiprensky.

The artistic and civil views of the artist are strengthened in the years following the Patriotic War. Richly and variously gifted - he composed poetry, loved and knew the theater, studied sculpture and even wrote a treatise on aesthetics - Kiprensky draws close to the advanced circles of St. Petersburg society: writers, poets, artists, sculptors, philosophers.

One of the best creations of Kiprensky is the portrait of A. S. Pushkin (1827) (See Appendix 2). Friendly relations with the great poet, the influence of Pushkin's romantic poems on the work of Kiprensky, the latter's admiration for the high gift of the first poet in Russia - all this determined the significance of the task set for the painter. And Kiprensky coped with it admirably. From the portrait emanates the illumination of inspiration. The artist captured not a dear friend of cheerful youth, not a simple writer, but a great poet. With amazing subtlety and skill, Kiprensky conveyed the moment of creativity: Pushkin seemed to listen to only him audible, he is in the power of poetry. At the same time, in the strict simplicity of appearance, the sad expression of the eyes, one can feel the maturity of the poet, who has experienced a lot and changed his mind, having reached the zenith of creativity.

Thus, along with the romantic elation of the image, the portrait is also distinguished by a deep penetration not only into the psychology of the poet, but also into the spirit of the era that followed the defeat of the Decembrists. This understanding of the ideas and feelings of his time is one of the defining and most important qualities of Kiprensky the portrait painter, who managed to convey this with romantic pathos in his works.

Russian romanticism was generated by the turbulent and restless era of the beginning of the 19th century with its foreign policy and domestic cataclysms. Kiprensky, who participated in the creation of a new artistic direction, managed to find and express in his works the best feelings and ideas of his time, close to the first Russian revolutionaries - humanism, patriotism, love of freedom. The spiritual content of the paintings also required a new form of expression, the search for a more truthful and subtle transmission of the individual character, thoughts and feelings of a contemporary. All this not only led to a departure from the academic canons of the portrait genre, but also was a significant step forward along the path of a realistic embodiment of reality. At the same time, true to the spirit of the romantic school, the artist, neglecting everyday life, depicts people at special moments in their lives, in moments of strong spiritual tension or impulse, which makes it possible to reveal the high emotional principles of nature - heroic or dreamy, inspirational or energetic - and create a "dramatic biography of a person.

2.3 Romanticism in Russian theatrical art

Romanticism as an artistic trend in Russian theatrical art has been spreading mainly since the second decade of the 19th century.

In social and artistic terms, theatrical romanticism had some commonality with sentimentalism. Like the sentimentalist, romantic drama, in contrast to the rationalism of classical tragedy, it revealed the pathos of the experiences of the persons portrayed. However, while affirming the significance of the human personality with its individual inner world, romanticism at the same time preferred the depiction of exceptional characters in exceptional circumstances. Romantic dramas, like novels, short stories, were characterized by a fantastic plot or the introduction of a number of mysterious circumstances into it: the appearance of ghosts, ghosts, all kinds of omens, etc. At the same time, the romantic drama was composed more dynamically than the classical tragedy and sentimentalist drama, in which the plot unfolded mainly descriptively, in the monologues of the characters. In a romantic drama, it was the actions of the characters that predetermined the denouement of the plot, while they interacted with the social environment, with the people.

Romantic drama, like sentimentalism, began to develop in the 1920s and 1940s in two directions, reflecting a conservative and progressive social line. Dramatic works expressing a loyal ideology were opposed by the creations of the Decembrist dramaturgy, drama and tragedy, full of social rebellion.

The interest of the Decembrists in the theater was closely connected with their political activities. The educational program of the Union of Welfare, which encouraged its members to participate in literary societies and circles, with the help of which it would be possible to influence the worldview of wide circles of the nobility, also attracted their attention to the theater. Already in one of the first literary circles associated with the "Union of Welfare" - "Green Lamp" - theatrical issues become one of the constant subjects of discussion. Pushkin's famous article "My remarks on the Russian theater" was formed as a result of theatrical disputes in the "Green Lamp". Later, in the Decembrist editions of Mnemosyne and Polar Star, Ryleev, Kuchelbecker and A. Bestuzhev, speaking on the issues of Russian theatrical art, outlined a new, democratic understanding of its tasks as art, primarily national and civil. This new understanding of theatrical art also dictated special requirements for dramatic works. "I involuntarily give priority to what shakes the soul, what elevates it, what touches the heart," A. Bestuzhev wrote to Pushkin in March 1825, referring to the content of the plays. In addition to the touching, sublime plot in the drama, according to A. Bestuzhev, good and evil should be clearly distinguished, which should be constantly exposed and scourged with satire. That is why the "Polar Star" so enthusiastically welcomed the appearance of AS Griboedov's comedy "Woe from Wit". A talented playwright of the Decembrist trend was P. A. Katenin, a member of secret societies, playwright, translator, connoisseur and lover of the theater, educator of a number of outstanding Russian actors. Being a versatile and talented person, he translated the plays of the French playwrights Racine and Corneille, was enthusiastically engaged in the theory of drama, defending the ideal of nationality and originality of stage art, its political free-thinking. Katenin also wrote his own dramatic works. His tragedies "Ariadne" and especially "Andromache" were filled with a freedom-loving and civic spirit. Katenin's bold performances displeased the authorities, and in 1822 the unreliable theatergoer was expelled from St. Petersburg.

The opposite pole of romantic dramaturgy was represented by the works of conservative writers. Such works included plays by Shakhovsky, N. Polevoy, Kukolnik and similar playwrights. Plots by the authors of such works were often taken from national history.

The plays of N. V. Kukolnik were close in spirit to the work of Shakhovsky. The latter's dramatic abilities were not great, his plays, thanks to some entertaining plot and loyal spirit, enjoyed success with a certain part of the public and were invariably approved by the authorities. The themes of many of the Dollmaker's plays were also taken from Russian history. However, the episodes that took place in the past were used by the author as a canvas, on which a completely fantastic plot was created, subject to the main morality - the affirmation of devotion to the throne and the church. The favorite way to present these moral maxims was huge monologues, which, for any reason, were uttered by the characters of the Dollmaker's plays, and in particular his most famous tragedy, The Hand of the Most High Fatherland Saved.

N. A. Polevoy was a particularly prolific and gifted playwright in this direction. As is known, this capable publicist, after the prohibition by the authorities of his magazine "Moscow Telegraph" and long ordeals, became an employee of F. Bulgarin. Turning to drama, he created a number of original and translated plays, most of which are devoted to the glorification of the autocracy and the officially understood nationality. These are plays such as "Igolkin" (1835), which depicts the feat of the merchant Igolkin, who sacrificed his life to protect the honor of his sovereign - Peter I. "Grandfather of the Russian Navy" (1837), a play of a loyal spirit from the era of Peter I, for which Polevoy the ring was granted by the king. Just like the Dollmaker's plays, they are devoid of historical authenticity, they have many fantastic effects, mysterious incidents. The characters of the heroes are extremely primitive: they are either villains with black souls or meek angels. In 1840, Polev completed his most famous drama Parasha the Siberian, which tells the story of a selfless girl who went from Siberia to St. Petersburg to work for her exiled father. Having reached the king, the girl begged forgiveness from him for her father. With a similar finale, the author once again emphasized the justice and mercy of the royal power. At the same time, the theme of the play awakened in society memories of the Decembrists, with whom Polevoy himself sympathized in the past.

Thus, the romantic drama, as can be seen even on the basis of a brief review, having replaced the classic tragedy and partly sentimentalist drama on the stage, has taken on and retained some of their features. Along with greater amusement and dynamism of the plot, increased emotionality and a different ideological basis, the romantic drama retained the moralizing and reasoning inherent in previous dramatic forms, lengthy monologues explaining the hero’s inner experiences or his attitude towards other actors, and the primitive psychological characteristics of the characters. Nevertheless, the romantic drama genre, mainly due to the depiction of its elevated feelings and beautiful impulses and amusing plot, proved to be quite durable and survived with some changes into the second half of the 19th century.

Just as the romantic drama took on some features of the classic and sentimentalist plays, so the theatrical art of the actors of the romantic school retained traces of the classic artistic method. Such continuity was all the more natural because the transition from classicism to romanticism took place during the stage activity of one generation of Russian actors, who gradually moved from the classic to the embodiment of the characters of romantic dramas. So, the features inherited from classicism were theatricality of acting, expressed in the pathos of speech, artificial graceful plasticity, the ability to perfectly wear historical costumes. At the same time, along with external theatricality, the romantic school allowed realism in the transfer of the inner world and the appearance of the characters. However, this realism was peculiar and somewhat conditional. On the real life features of the depicted character, the artist of the romantic school seemed to throw a kind of poetic cover, which gave an ordinary phenomenon or action an exalted character, made “grief interesting and joy ennobled”. 6

One of the most typical representatives of stage romanticism on the Russian stage was Vasily Andreevich Karatygin, a talented representative of a large acting family, for many contemporaries - the first actor of the St. Petersburg stage. Tall, with noble manners, with a strong, even thunderous voice, Karatygin, as if by nature he was destined for majestic monologues. No one knew how to wear magnificent historical costumes made of silk and brocade, shining with gold and silver embroidery, fight with swords, and take picturesque poses better than him. Already at the very beginning of his stage activity, V. A. Karatygin won the attention of the public and theater critics. A. Bestuzhev, who negatively assessed the state of the Russian theater of that period, singled out "Karatygin's strong play." And this is no coincidence. The audience was attracted by the tragic pathos of his talent. Some of the stage images created by Karatygin impressed the future participants in the events of December 14, 1825 with a social orientation - this is the image of the thinker Hamlet ("Hamlet" by Shakespeare), the rebellious Don Pedro ("Inessa de Castro" de Lamotta), and others. Sympathy for advanced ideas brought the younger generation of the family together Karatygins with progressive-minded writers. V. A. Karatygin and his brother P. A. Karatygin met A. S. Pushkin, A. S. Griboyedov, A. N. Odoevsky, V. K. Kyuchelbeker, A. A. and N. A. Bestuzhevs. However, after the events of December 14, 1825, V. A. Karatygin moved away from literary circles, focusing his interests on theatrical activities. Gradually, he becomes one of the first actors of the Alexandria Theater, enjoys the favor of the court and Nicholas I himself.

Karatygin's favorite roles were the roles of historical characters, legendary heroes, people of predominantly high origin or status - kings, generals, nobles. At the same time, he most of all strove for external historical plausibility. A good draftsman, he made sketches of costumes, using old prints and engravings as samples. With the same attention, he treated the creation of portrait make-up. But this was combined with a complete disregard for the psychological characteristics of the characters portrayed. In his heroes, the actor, following the classic style, saw only the performers of a certain historical mission.

If Karatygin was considered the premiere of the capital's stage, then P. S. Mochalov reigned on the stage of the Moscow Drama Theater of these years. One of the outstanding actors of the first half of the 19th century, he began his stage career as an actor in classical tragedy. However, due to his passion for melodrama and romantic drama, his talent is being improved in this area, and he gained popularity as a romantic actor. In his work, he sought to create the image of a heroic personality. In the performance of Mochalov, even the stilted heroes of the plays by Kukolnik or Polevoy acquired the spirituality of genuine human experiences, personified high ideals of honor, justice, and kindness. During the years of political reaction that followed the defeat of the Decembrist uprising, Mochalov's work reflected progressive public sentiments.

PS Mochalov willingly turned to Western European classics, to the dramas of Shakespeare and Schiller. The roles of Don Carlos and Franz (in Schiller's dramas Don Carlos and Robbers), Ferdinand (in Schiller's Intrigue and Love), Mortimer (in Schiller's drama Mary Stuart) were played by Mochalov with extraordinary artistic power. The greatest success brought him the performance of the role of Hamlet. The image of Hamlet was innovative compared to the generally accepted tradition of interpreting Shakespeare's hero as a weak person, incapable of any volitional deeds. Mochalovsky Hamlet was an actively thinking and acting hero. "He demanded the highest exertion of strength, but on the other hand he cleansed from the insignificant, vain, empty. He condemned to a feat, but liberated the soul." 7 In Mochalov's game there was no theme of the struggle for the throne, which Karatygin emphasized when playing this role. Hamlet-Mochalov entered the battle for a person, for goodness, for justice, therefore this image in the performance of Mochalov became dear and close to the advanced democratic strata of Russian society in the mid-1830s. Belinsky's famous article "Mochalov in the role of Hamlet" tells about the amazing impression that his play made on his contemporaries. Belinsky watched Mochalov 8 times in this role. In the article, he came to the conclusion that the viewer saw Hamlet not so much Shakespearean as Mochalovsky, that the performer gave Hamlet "more strength and energy than a person who is in a struggle with himself can have ... and gave him sadness and melancholy less than Shakespeare's Hamlet should have." But at the same time Mochalov "threw in our eyes a new light on this creation of Shakespeare." eight

Belinsky believed that Mochalov showed Shakespeare's hero great and strong even in weakness. In the best creation of Mochalov, the weaknesses and strengths of his performing style appeared. Belinsky considered him an actor "appointed exclusively for fiery and frenzied roles," and not deep, concentrated, melancholic ones. Therefore, it was not by chance that Mochalov brought so much energy and strength to the image of Hamlet. This is an image not of a thinker, but of a hero-fighter who opposes the world of violence and injustice, that is, a typical romantic hero.

CONCLUSION

Completing the work, we can conclude that romanticism as an artistic movement arose in a number of European countries at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries. The most important milestones that determined its chronological framework were the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794 and the bourgeois revolutions of 1848.

Romanticism was a complex ideological and philosophical phenomenon that reflected the reaction of various social groups to bourgeois revolutions and bourgeois society.

Anti-bourgeois protest was characteristic of both conservative circles and the progressive intelligentsia. Hence the feelings of disappointment and pessimism that are characteristic of Western European romanticism. For some romantic writers (the so-called passive ones), the protest against the "money bag" was accompanied by a call for the return of the feudal-medieval order; among progressive romantics, the rejection of bourgeois reality gave rise to a dream of a different, just, democratic system.

The main stream of the Russian literary revolution in the first half of the century was the same as in the West: sentimentalism, romanticism and realism. But the appearance of each of these stages was extremely original, and this originality was determined both by the close interweaving and merging of already known elements, and by the advancement of new ones - those that Western European literature did not know or almost did not know.

And for a long time, Russian romanticism that developed later was characterized by interaction not only with the traditions of Storm and Onslaught or the Gothic novel, but also with the Enlightenment. The latter especially complicated the image of Russian romanticism, because, like Western European romanticism, it cultivated the idea of ​​autonomous and original creativity and acted under the sign of anti-enlightenment and anti-rationalism. In practice, he often crossed out or limited his initial installations.

Thus, romanticism as a historical and literary phenomenon cannot be reduced to one subjective one. Its essence is revealed in the totality of signs. Romantics, like realists, had a complex worldview, they broadly, multifacetedly reflected their contemporary reality and historical past, their creative practice was a complex ideological and aesthetic world that could not be unambiguously defined.

The purpose of the study is achieved - the features of Russian romanticism are considered. Research tasks are solved.

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ANNEX 1

Bryullov K.P. The last day of Pompeii

APPENDIX 2

Kiprensky O.A. Portrait of Pushkin

1 Glinka S. N. Notes on 1812 by S. N. Glinka. SPb., 1895. S. 24.

2 Bestuzhev-Marlinsky A. Op. In 2 vols. T. 1. M., 1952. S. 119.

3 Lermontov M. Yu. Sobr. op. In 4 vols. T. 2. S. 407.

4 Gogol N. V. “The Last Day of Pompeii” (Painting by Bryullov) // Gogol N. V. Sobr. op. V b t. T. 6. M., 1953. S. 79.

5 Queen N. Decembrists and theater. L., 1975. S. 93.

6 Benyash R. M. Pavel Mochalov. L., 1976. S. 223.

7 Benyash R. M. Pavel Mochalov. L., 1976. S. 223.

8 Belinsky V. G. About drama and theater. T. 1. M., 1983. S. 149.

Romanticism (fr. romantisme) is a phenomenon of European culture in the 18th-19th centuries, which is a reaction to the Enlightenment and the scientific and technological progress stimulated by it; ideological and artistic direction in European and American culture of the late 18th century - the first half of the 19th century. It is characterized by the assertion of the intrinsic value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong (often rebellious) passions and characters, spiritualized and healing nature. It spread to various spheres of human activity. In the 18th century, everything that was strange, fantastic, picturesque, and existing in books, and not in reality, was called romantic. At the beginning of the 19th century, romanticism became the designation of a new direction, opposite to classicism and the Enlightenment.

Romanticism in literature

Romanticism first arose in Germany, among the writers and philosophers of the Jena school (W. G. Wackenroder, Ludwig Tieck, Novalis, the brothers F. and A. Schlegel). The philosophy of romanticism was systematized in the works of F. Schlegel and F. Schelling. In the further development of German romanticism, interest in fairy-tale and mythological motifs was distinguished, which was especially clearly expressed in the work of the brothers Wilhelm and Jacob Grimm, Hoffmann. Heine, starting his work within the framework of romanticism, later subjected him to a critical revision.

Theodore Géricault Plot "Medusas" (1817), Louvre

England is largely due to German influence. In England, its first representatives are the poets of the Lake School, Wordsworth and Coleridge. They established the theoretical foundations of their direction, having familiarized themselves with the philosophy of Schelling and the views of the first German romantics during a trip to Germany. English romanticism is characterized by an interest in social problems: they oppose to modern bourgeois society the old, pre-bourgeois relations, the glorification of nature, simple, natural feelings.

A prominent representative of English romanticism is Byron, who, in the words of Pushkin, "clothed in dull romanticism and hopeless egoism." His work is imbued with the pathos of struggle and protest against the modern world, the glorification of freedom and individualism.

Also, English romanticism includes the work of Shelley, John Keats, William Blake.

Romanticism also spread in other European countries, for example, in France (Chateaubriand, J. Stael, Lamartine, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Vigny, Prosper Merimee, George Sand), Italy (N. U. Foscolo, A. Manzoni, Leopardi) , Poland (Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Slowacki, Zygmunt Krasiński, Cyprian Norwid) and in the USA (Washington Irving, Fenimore Cooper, W. K. Bryant, Edgar Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry Longfellow, Herman Melville).

Stendhal also considered himself a French romantic, but he meant by romanticism something different than most of his contemporaries. In the epigraph of the novel "Red and Black", he took the words "True, bitter truth", emphasizing his vocation for a realistic study of human characters and actions. The writer was addicted to romantic outstanding natures, for which he recognized the right to "go hunting for happiness." He sincerely believed that it depends only on the way of society whether a person can realize his eternal craving for well-being, given by nature itself.

Romanticism in Russian literature

It is usually believed that in Russia romanticism appears in the poetry of V. A. Zhukovsky (although some Russian poetic works of the 1790-1800s are often attributed to the pre-romantic movement that developed from sentimentalism). In Russian romanticism, freedom from classical conventions appears, a ballad, a romantic drama, is created. A new idea of ​​the essence and meaning of poetry is affirmed, which is recognized as an independent sphere of life, an expression of the highest, ideal aspirations of man; the old view, according to which poetry was an empty pastime, something completely serviceable, is no longer possible.

The early poetry of A. S. Pushkin also developed within the framework of romanticism. The poetry of M. Yu. Lermontov, the “Russian Byron”, can be considered the pinnacle of Russian romanticism. The philosophical lyrics of F. I. Tyutchev are both the completion and the overcoming of romanticism in Russia.

The emergence of romanticism in Russia

In the 19th century, Russia was in a certain cultural isolation. Romanticism arose seven years later than in Europe. You can talk about his some imitation. In Russian culture, there was no opposition of man to the world and God. Zhukovsky appears, who remakes the German ballads in a Russian way: "Svetlana" and "Lyudmila". Byron's variant of romanticism was lived and felt in his work first in Russian culture by Pushkin, then by Lermontov.

Russian romanticism, starting with Zhukovsky, flourished in the works of many other writers: K. Batyushkov, A. Pushkin, M. Lermontov, E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev, V. Odoevsky, V. Garshin, A. Kuprin, A. Blok, A. Green, K. Paustovsky and many others.

ADDITIONALLY.

Romanticism (from the French Romantisme) is an ideological and artistic trend that arises at the end of the 18th century in European and American culture and continues until the 40s of the 19th century. Reflecting disappointment in the results of the French Revolution, in the ideology of the Enlightenment and bourgeois progress, romanticism opposed utilitarianism and the leveling of the individual with the aspiration for unlimited freedom and the “infinite”, the thirst for perfection and renewal, the pathos of the individual and civil independence.

The painful disintegration of the ideal and social reality is the basis of the romantic worldview and art. The affirmation of the inherent value of the spiritual and creative life of the individual, the image of strong passions, spiritualized and healing nature, is adjacent to the motifs of "world sorrow", "world evil", the "night" side of the soul. Interest in the national past (often - its idealization), the traditions of folklore and culture of one's own and other peoples, the desire to publish a universal picture of the world (primarily history and literature) found expression in the ideology and practice of Romanticism.

Romanticism is observed in literature, fine arts, architecture, behavior, clothing and psychology of people.

REASONS FOR THE ORIGIN OF ROMANTICISM.

The immediate cause that caused the emergence of romanticism was the Great French bourgeois revolution. How did this become possible?

Before the revolution, the world was ordered, there was a clear hierarchy in it, each person took his place. The revolution overturned the "pyramid" of society, a new one has not yet been created, so the individual has a feeling of loneliness. Life is a flow, life is a game in which some are lucky and some are not. In literature, images of players appear - people who play with fate. One can recall such works by European writers as Hoffmann's "The Gambler", Stendhal's "Red and Black" (and red and black are the colors of roulette!), and in Russian literature these are Pushkin's "Queen of Spades", Gogol's "Gamblers", "Masquerade" Lermontov.

THE MAIN CONFLICT OF ROMANTISM

The main one is the conflict of man with the world. There is a psychology of a rebellious personality, which Lord Byron most deeply reflected in Childe Harold's Journey. The popularity of this work was so great that a whole phenomenon arose - "Byronism", and whole generations of young people tried to imitate him (such, for example, Pechorin in Lermontov's "A Hero of Our Time").

Romantic heroes are united by a sense of their own exclusivity. "I" - is realized as the highest value, hence the egocentrism of the romantic hero. But focusing on oneself, a person comes into conflict with reality.

REALITY - the world is strange, fantastic, unusual, as in Hoffmann's fairy tale "The Nutcracker", or ugly, as in his fairy tale "Little Tsakhes". Strange events take place in these tales, objects come to life and enter into lengthy conversations, the main theme of which is a deep gap between ideals and reality. And this gap becomes the main THEME of the lyrics of romanticism.

THE ERA OF ROMANTISM

Before the writers of the early 19th century, whose work took shape after the French Revolution, life set different tasks than before their predecessors. They were to discover and artistically form a new continent for the first time.

The thinking and feeling man of the new century had a long and instructive experience of previous generations behind him, he was endowed with a deep and complex inner world, before his eyes hovered the images of the heroes of the French Revolution, the Napoleonic wars, the national liberation movements, the images of the poetry of Goethe and Byron. In Russia, the Patriotic War of 1812 played the role of an important historical milestone in the spiritual and moral development of society, profoundly changing the cultural and historical image of Russian society. In terms of its significance for national culture, it can be compared with the period of the 18th century revolution in the West.

And in this era of revolutionary storms, military upheavals and national liberation movements, the question arises whether, on the basis of a new historical reality, a new literature can arise that is not inferior in its artistic perfection to the greatest phenomena of the literature of the ancient world and the Renaissance? And can its further development be based on “modern man”, a man from the people? But a man of the people who participated in the French Revolution or on whose shoulders the burden of the struggle against Napoleon fell could not be described in literature by means of novelists and poets of the previous century - he demanded other methods for his poetic embodiment.

PUSHKIN - ROMANTIC PROGRAVER

Only Pushkin, the first in Russian literature of the 19th century, was able to find adequate means in both poetry and prose to embody the versatile spiritual world, the historical appearance and behavior of that new, deeply thinking and feeling hero of Russian life, who occupied a central place in it after 1812 and in features after the Decembrist uprising.

In the lyceum poems, Pushkin still could not, and did not dare to make the hero of his lyrics a real person of the new generation with all the internal psychological complexity inherent in him. Pushkin's poem represented, as it were, the resultant of two forces: the poet's personal experience and the conditional, "ready-made", traditional poetic formula-scheme, according to the internal laws of which this experience was shaped and developed.

However, gradually the poet is freed from the power of the canons and in his poems we are no longer a young “philosopher”, an Epicurean, an inhabitant of a conditional “town”, but a man of the new century, with his rich and intense intellectual and emotional inner life.

A similar process takes place in Pushkin's work in any genre, where the conventional images of characters, already consecrated by tradition, give way to the figures of living people with their complex, diverse actions and psychological motives. At first, this is a somewhat more abstract Prisoner or Aleko. But soon they are replaced by the very real Onegin, Lensky, the young Dubrovsky, German, Charsky. And, finally, the most complete expression of the new type of personality will be Pushkin's lyrical "I", the poet himself, whose spiritual world is the deepest, richest and most complex expression of the burning moral and intellectual issues of the time.

One of the conditions for the historical revolution that Pushkin made in the development of Russian poetry, dramaturgy and narrative prose was the fundamental break he made with the educational-rationalistic, non-historical idea of ​​the "nature" of man, the laws of human thinking and feeling.

The complex and contradictory soul of the “young man” of the early 19th century in “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, “Gypsies”, “Eugene Onegin” became for Pushkin an object of artistic and psychological observation and study in its special, specific and unique historical quality. Putting his hero every time in certain conditions, depicting him in various circumstances, in new relationships with people, exploring his psychology from different angles and using for this every time a new system of artistic "mirrors", Pushkin in his lyrics, southern poems and Onegin ” strives from various sides to approach the understanding of his soul, and through it - further to the understanding of the laws of contemporary socio-historical life reflected in this soul.

The historical understanding of man and human psychology began to emerge in Pushkin in the late 1810s and early 1820s. We meet the first distinct expression of it in the historical elegies of this time (“The daylight went out ...” (1820), “To Ovid” (1821), etc.) and in the poem “Prisoner of the Caucasus”, the main character of which was conceived by Pushkin, by the poet's own admission, as a bearer of feelings and moods characteristic of the youth of the 19th century with its "indifference to life" and "premature old age of the soul" (from a letter to V.P. Gorchakov, October-November 1822)

32. The main themes and motifs of A.S. Pushkin’s philosophical lyrics of the 1830s (“Elegy”, “Demons”, “Autumn”, “When outside the city ...”, Kamennoostrovsky cycle, etc.). Genre-style searches.

Reflections about life, its meaning, its purpose, about death and immortality become the leading philosophical motifs of Pushkin's lyrics at the stage of completion of the "celebration of life". Among the poems of this period, the most notable is “Do I wander along the noisy streets ...” The motif of death, its inevitability, persistently sounds in it. The problem of death is solved by the poet not only as an inevitability, but also as a natural completion of earthly existence:

I say the years go by

And how many of us are not visible here,

We will all descend under the eternal vaults -

And someone's hour is near.

The poems amaze with the amazing generosity of Pushkin's heart, which is able to welcome life even when there is no more room left for it.

And let at the coffin entrance

Young will play life

And indifferent nature

Shine with eternal beauty -

The poet writes, completing the poem.

In "Road Complaints" A.S. Pushkin writes about the disorder of his personal life, about what he lacked from childhood. Moreover, the poet perceives his own fate in a general Russian context: Russian off-road has both direct and figurative meaning in the poem, the historical wandering of the country in search of the right path of development is embedded in the meaning of this word.

Off road problem. But already different. Spiritual, properties appear in A.S. Pushkin's poem "Demons". It tells about the loss of a person in the whirlwinds of historical events. The motif of spiritual impassibility was suffered by the poet, who thinks a lot about the events of 1825, about his own miraculous deliverance from the fate that befell the participants in the popular uprising of 1825, about the actual miraculous deliverance from the fate that befell the participants in the uprising on Senate Square. In Pushkin's poems, the problem of being chosen, understanding the lofty mission entrusted by God to him as a poet, arises. It is this problem that becomes the leading one in the poem "Arion".

Continues the philosophical lyrics of the thirties, the so-called Kamennoostrovsky cycle, the core of which is the poems "The Hermit Fathers and Immaculate Wives ...", "Imitation of Italian", "Worldly Power", "From Pindemonti". This cycle brings together reflections on the problem of poetic knowledge of the world and man. From the pen of A.S. Pushkin comes a poem, an arrangement of the Lenten prayer by Yefim the Sirin. Reflections on religion, on its great strengthening moral power, become the leading motive of this poem.

Pushkin the philosopher experienced a real heyday in the Boldin autumn of 1833. Among the major works about the role of fate in human life, about the role of personality in history, the poetic masterpiece "Autumn" attracts. The motive of man's connection with the cycle of natural life and the motive of creativity are the leading ones in this poem. Russian nature, life merged with it, obeying its laws, seems to the author of the poem to be the greatest value, without it there is no inspiration, and therefore no creativity. “And every autumn I bloom again ...” - the poet writes about himself.

Peering into the artistic fabric of the poem "... Again I visited ...", the reader easily discovers a whole range of themes and motifs of Pushkin's lyrics, expressing ideas about man and nature, about time, about memory and fate. It is against their background that the main philosophical problem of this poem sounds - the problem of generational change. Nature awakens in man the memory of the past, although she herself has no memory. It is updated, repeating itself in each of its updates. Therefore, the noise of the new pines of the “young tribe”, which descendants will someday hear, will be the same as now, and it will touch those strings in their souls that will make them remember the deceased ancestor, who also lived in this repeating world. This is what allows the author of the poem "... Again I visited ..." to exclaim: "Hello, young tribe, unfamiliar!"

The path of the great poet through the "cruel age" was long and thorny. He led to immortality. The motive of poetic immortality is the leading one in the poem “I erected a monument to myself not made by hands ...”, which became a kind of testament to A.S. Pushkin.

Thus, philosophical motives were inherent in Pushkin's lyrics throughout his entire work. They arose in connection with the poet's appeal to the problems of death and immortality, faith and unbelief, generational change, creativity, the meaning of being. All the philosophical lyrics of A.S. Pushkin can be subjected to periodization, which will correspond to the life stages of the great poet, at each of which she thought about some very specific problems. However, at any stage of his work, A.S. Pushkin spoke in his poems only about what is generally significant for mankind. This is probably why “the folk path will not grow” to this Russian poet.

ADDITIONALLY.

Analysis of the poem "When out of town, thoughtfully I wander"

“... When outside the city, thoughtful, I wander ...”. So Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin

begins a poem of the same name.

Reading this poem, it becomes clear his attitude to all feasts

and luxury of urban and metropolitan life.

Conventionally, this poem can be divided into two parts: the first is about the capital's cemetery,

the other is about agriculture. In the transition from one to another, and changes accordingly

mood of the poet, but, highlighting the role of the first line in the poem, I think it would be

it is a mistake to take the first line of the first part as defining the whole mood of the verse, because

lines: “But how delightful it is for me In the autumn sometimes, in the evening silence, In the village to visit

a family cemetery…” Cardinally change the direction of the poet's thoughts.

In this poem, the conflict is expressed in the form of opposition to the urban

cemeteries, where: “Grates, columns, ornate tombs. Under which all the dead rot

capitals In a swamp, somehow cramped in a row ... ”and a rural, closer to the poet’s heart,

cemeteries: “Where the dead slumber in solemn rest, there are undecorated graves

space ... ”But, again, comparing these two parts of the poem, one cannot forget about

the last lines, which, it seems to me, reflect the whole attitude of the author to these two

completely different places:

1. “What evil finds despondency in me, Though spit and run ...”

2. “An oak tree stands wide over important coffins, hesitating and making noise…” Two parts

one poem compared as day and night, moon and sun. Author through

comparison of the true purpose of those who come to these cemeteries and those who lie underground

shows us how different the same concepts can be.

I'm talking about the fact that a widow or a widower will come to the city cemeteries only for the sake of

in order to create an impression of grief and sorrow, although it is not always correct. Those who

lies under “inscriptions and prose and in verse” during life they cared only “On the virtues,

about service and ranks".

On the contrary, if we talk about the rural cemetery. People go there to

pour out your soul and talk to those who are no longer there.

It seems to me that it is not by chance that Alexander Sergeevich wrote such a poem for

year before his death. He was afraid, as I think, that he would be buried in the same city,

capital cemetery and he will have the same grave as those whose tombstones he contemplated.

“Thieves from the pillars unscrewed the urns

Slimy graves, which are also here,

Yawning, they are waiting for the tenants to their place in the morning.

Analysis of A.S. Pushkin's poem "Elegy"

Crazy years faded fun

It's hard for me, like a vague hangover.

But, like wine - the sadness of bygone days

In my soul, the older, the stronger.

My path is sad. Promises me labor and sorrow

The coming turbulent sea.

But I don't want, oh friends, to die;

And I know I will enjoy

Amid sorrows, worries and anxieties:

Sometimes I'll get drunk again with harmony,

I will shed tears over fiction,

A. S. Pushkin wrote this elegy in 1830. It belongs to philosophical lyrics. Pushkin turned to this genre as an already middle-aged poet, wise in life and experience. This poem is deeply personal. Two stanzas make up a semantic contrast: the first one discusses the drama of the life path, the second sounds like an apotheosis of creative self-realization, the high purpose of the poet. We can easily identify the lyrical hero with the author himself. In the first lines (“Insane years, the fun that has faded / it’s hard for me, like a vague hangover.”) The poet says that he is no longer young. Looking back, he sees behind him the path traveled, which is far from perfect: the past fun, from which heaviness in the soul. However, at the same time, longing for the bygone days fills the soul, it is intensified by a sense of anxiety and uncertainty about the future, in which “work and grief” are seen. But it also means movement and a fulfilling creative life. "Work and Sorrow" is perceived by an ordinary person as hard rock, but for a poet it is ups and downs. Work is creativity, grief is impressions, events that are bright in significance and bring inspiration. And the poet, despite the years that have passed, believes and waits for the “coming turbulent sea.”

After lines that are rather gloomy in meaning, which seem to beat out the rhythm of a funeral march, suddenly a light flight of a wounded bird:

But I don't want, oh friends, to die;

I want to live in order to think and suffer;

The poet will die when he stops thinking, even if blood runs through the body and the heart beats. The movement of thought is true life, development, which means striving for perfection. Thought is responsible for the mind, and suffering for feelings. “Suffering” is also the capacity for compassion.

A tired person is weary of the past and sees the future in a fog. But the poet, the creator confidently predicts that "there will be pleasures between sorrows, worries and anxieties." What will these earthly joys of the poet lead to? They give new creative fruits:

Sometimes I'll get drunk again with harmony,

I will shed tears over fiction ...

Harmony is probably the integrity of Pushkin's works, their impeccable form. Either this is the very moment of creation of works, the moment of all-consuming inspiration... The fiction and tears of the poet are the result of inspiration, this is the work itself.

And maybe my sunset is sad

Love will shine with a farewell smile.

When the muse of inspiration comes to him, perhaps (the poet doubts, but hopes) he will fall in love again and be loved. One of the main aspirations of the poet, the crown of his work is love, which, like the muse, is a life partner. And this love is the last. "Elegy" in the form of a monologue. It is addressed to "friends" - to those who understand and share the thoughts of the lyrical hero.

The poem is a lyrical meditation. It is written in the classical genre of elegy, and the tone and intonation correspond to this: elegy in Greek means “plaintive song”. This genre has been widespread in Russian poetry since the 18th century: Sumarokov, Zhukovsky, later Lermontov, Nekrasov turned to it. But Nekrasov's elegy is civil, Pushkin's is philosophical. In classicism, this genre, one of the "high", obliged the use of grandiloquent words and old Slavonicisms.

Pushkin, in turn, did not neglect this tradition, and used Old Slavonic words, forms and turns in the work, and the abundance of such vocabulary does not in the least deprive the poem of lightness, grace and clarity.

Who was the representative of romanticism in literature, you will learn by reading this article.

Representatives of romanticism in literature

Romanticism is an ideological and artistic trend that arose in American and European culture of the late 18th century - early 19th century, as a reaction to the aesthetics of classicism. Initially, romanticism took shape in the 1790s in German poetry and philosophy, and later spread to France, England and other countries.

Basic ideas of romanticism– recognition of the values ​​of spiritual and creative life, the right to freedom and independence. In literature, the heroes have a rebellious strong disposition, and the plots were distinguished by the intensity of passions.

The main representatives of romanticism in Russian literature of the 19th century

Russian romanticism combined the human personality, enclosed in a beautiful and mysterious world of harmony, high feelings and beauty. Representatives of this romanticism in their works depicted not the real world and the main character, filled with experiences and thoughts.

• Representatives of the romanticism of England

The works are distinguished by gloomy Gothic, religious content, elements of the culture of the working class, national folklore and the peasant class. The peculiarity of English romanticism is that the authors describe in detail travel, wanderings to distant lands, as well as their research. The most famous authors and works: Childe Harold's Journey, Manfred and Oriental Poems, Ivanhoe.

• Representatives of German Romanticism

The development of German romanticism in literature was influenced by a philosophy that promoted the freedom and individualism of the individual. The works are filled with reflections on the existence of man, his soul. They are also distinguished by mythological and fairy-tale motifs. The most famous authors and works: fairy tales, short stories and novels, fairy tales, works.

• Representatives of American Romanticism

Romanticism developed much later in American literature than in Europe. Literary works are divided into 2 types - Eastern (supporters of the plantation) and abolitionist (those who support the rights of slaves, their emancipation). They are overwhelmed with sharp feelings of struggle for independence, equality and freedom. Representatives of American Romanticism - ("The Fall of the House of Usher", ("Ligeia"), Washington Irving ("The Ghost Groom", "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow"), Nathaniel Hawthorne ("The House of Seven Gables", "The Scarlet Letter"), Fenimore Cooper (The Last of the Mohicans), Harriet Beecher Stowe (Uncle Tom's Cabin), (The Legend of Hiawatha), Herman Melville (Typey, Moby Dick) and (Leaves of Grass poetry collection) .

We hope that from this article you have learned everything about the brightest representatives of the current of romanticism in literature.

The difficulties of solving this question also begin with chronology, namely with the so-called problem backwardness of Russian literature. This opinion is generally recognized, it is shared by both domestic and foreign scientists.

M. L. Gasparov: “The eternal fate of Russian culture of the 18th and 19th centuries is its lagging behind Western Europe by one or two generations.”

Italian researcher Guido Carpi: "Russian modernism just does not coincide in time with similar European trends, like classicism and romanticism that preceded it."

Yes, this is true, but still the picture is more complex, because the “lag” is a variable and decreasing value.

Indeed, the golden age of French classicism was the 17th, when J.-B. Racine, P. Corneille, Molière, J. de La Fontaine, when the theory of this direction took shape in N. Boileau's Poetic Art. In Russia, classicism took shape in the second quarter of the 18th century. (A. D. Kantemir, M. V. Lomonosov, V. K. Trediakovsky and others), i.e. over a century late!

The artistic styles associated with the Enlightenment emerged in the West, primarily in French literature, in the middle of the 18th century. (Voltaire, D. Diderot and others); in Russia - in the last third of the same century (D. I. Fonvizin, N. I. Novikov, A. N. Radishchev and others). The time gap is thus reduced to one or two decades.

Sentimentalism in English literature (J. Thomson, E. Jung, L. Stern) and French (Didero, J.-J. Rousseau, J.-A. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre) dates back to about 1730-1780. In Russia, this direction developed in the 1770s-1790s and in the first years of the 19th century. (M. N. Muravyov, N. M. Karamzin, I. I. Dmitriev, Yu. A. Neledinsky-Meletsky). As you can see, Russian sentimentalism chronologically adjoins Western European, literally following on its heels.

The picture will change even more if we turn to romanticism, which replaced sentimentalism. True, and this time a new one

the direction arose in the West somewhat earlier than in Russia (the Jena and Heidelberg schools in Germany, the Lake School in England). However, then Russian romanticism "catches up" with Western European trends: the time of the 1820-1830s. - the general era of European, including Russian, romanticism. The same can be said about the era of realistic styles. But it is noteworthy that it was at the stage of romanticism that a phenomenon arose that we have the right to call chronological alignment.

All this, of course, does not deprive romanticism of its originality in Russian literature, which will become more noticeable if we recall the definitions that exist on this subject.

Researchers of romanticism - not only Russian, but romanticism in general - like to give various definitions of it, and some have about 30 such definitions, others more. We will limit ourselves to two, behind which there are two different concepts.

The first belongs to G. A. Gukovsky and is most fully expressed in the book Pushkin and the Russian Romantics (1946), already familiar to us. The basis of romanticism is the idea of ​​personality:

"The romantic personality is the idea of ​​the only important, valuable and real, found by romantics only in introspection, in individual self-awareness, in the experience of one's soul as a whole world and the whole world."

Time raised the question: "Whose primacy - the subject or the object?" Romanticism answers: the subject!

“Romanticism says that a person in his inner life is free, cannot be deduced from anything (even from God), is self-sufficient and is his own cause and the cause of everything that exists.”

Then a new direction arose, which answered the same question: the main thing is the object. The essence of the movement from romanticism to realism is the development of a certain subjective complex of ideas into an objective one:

“The subjective of romanticism has not been abolished, but overgrown with the raft of the objective, has received an explanation in history and social life. People-individuals have become people-types... Metaphysical tautology has disintegrated. Realism of the 19th century was born.

Leaving aside some extremes, namely the excessive convergence of artistic creativity and ideology, we will keep in mind the positive aspects of this concept. The fact that a certain setting of a personality, a central character, is a fundamental and, as they say, a style-forming factor in the romantic artistic world, is already well known to us. By the way, Gukovsky's subtle analysis of a number of phenomena, such as Zhukovsky's psychological introspection, is in line with this idea.

But here we have another concept of romanticism, belonging to an equally authoritative researcher - N. Ya. Berkovsky. To the question: “Whose primacy is the object or the subject?” - Berkovsky answers differently:

“Romanticism tends to yearn for the infinitely beautiful. [But] we must not forget that in romanticism there is also a yearning for reality, simple, visual, for concreteness, ready to fall into people's hands. Romanticism is not protected from contact with concrete things, with everyday life, from their intrusion into its own environment, since it itself wants it.

This means that romanticism is not alien to the this-sidedness of the ideal. The researcher recalls that romantics (in particular, German ones) discovered Shakespeare, highly valued Cervantes, Aristophanes, that antiquity in general "unexpectedly occupies the most significant part in their constructions" .

So, on the one hand, romanticism as something subjective (or predominantly subjective), personal, twilight, mysteriously glimmering, "night." On the other hand, romanticism, as to a large extent this-worldly and, if not prosaic and objective, then, in any case, striving for prose and objectivity, combining opposites, gravitating towards harmony, containing almost a renaissance element (by the way, analogies with Revival is not uncommon in Berkovsky).

How to explain such a striking divergence of views? First of all, it is worth noting that Gukovsky is mainly a Russianist, a specialist in Russian literature of the 18th-19th centuries. Berkovsky is predominantly a "Westernizer", moreover, a Germanist, who paid great attention to the romantics of the Jena circle. Gukovsky's concept found a wide response from domestic historians of Russian literature. Berkovsky's concept looks good (as they say today) against the background of Western European historiography of romanticism, especially German romanticism. There are very important differences in tradition here.

Since the days of the books of the German writer and philosopher Ricarda Huh "Blutezeit der Romantik" (1899) and "Ausbreitung und Verfall der Romantik" (1902), which constituted an entire era, in Western European science, the emphasis has been shifted to the synthetic nature of the work of the Jena romantics, who "put forward as an ideal the union of the various poles, whatever the latter may be called - reason and fantasy, spirit and instinct.

This idea formed the basis of the already mentioned well-known book by Paul Kluckhohn "Das Ideengut der deutschen Romantik" (1941). In contrast to those researchers who strongly opposed romanticism to previous art forms - classicism, the Enlightenment, etc., Klukhon argued that the romantics sought to remove the antinomies that had arisen earlier:

“The main tendency of romantic life is the desire to overcome opposites with the help of a higher third principle, the desire for synthesis. The realm of the mind and the world of feelings, consciousness and the unconscious, experience and idea, nature and spirit, reflections and spiritual anguish, personality and society, national identity and universal breadth of vision, special and universal, this-worldly and other-worldly - all these contradictions considered by the Enlightenment and kindred to him by currents as antinomies, are experienced and realized by romantics as poles, as connected with each other, mutually conditioning opposites.

Let us pay attention: among the opposites reconciled by German romanticism in the desired synthesis are the individual and society; this world and the other world, i.e. those beginnings that are usually, following Gukovsky, divorced by the tradition of the domestic understanding of Russian romanticism.

However, this tradition in Russia dates back to more ancient times. Let us recall what Belinsky wrote about romanticism in 1841. Specifically, it was about the "ideal and sublime in the romanticism of the Schlegels" (ie the theorists of Jena romanticism, Friedrich Schlegel and his brother August Wilhelm). Like, this romanticism has already outlived its own:

“Indeed, who would now come hunting, forgetting the whole history of mankind and all of modernity, to look for poetry in the Catholic and knightly traditions of the Middle Ages? .. And by the way they quickly rushed to these Middle Ages, they guessed so soon that the East, Greece, Rome, Protestantism, and in general recent history and modernity, have just as much right to the attention of poetry as the Middle Ages, and that Shakespeare, on whom the Schlegels, in a strange contradiction with themselves, thought to rely, was not so much a romantic as contemporary poet...

It is not difficult to see the shifts that are imprinted in this characteristic. The Schlegels allegedly forgot "the whole history of mankind and the whole of modernity", completely chained themselves to the Middle Ages, although in fact August Schlegel devoted a significant part of his Viennese course to antiquity, the Renaissance, and the age of classicism, and Friedrich Schlegel even dreamed of becoming the Winckelmann of ancient literature. Romantics, says Belinsky, "did not guess" that modernity is a worthy subject of poetry, although Friedrich Schlegel wrote "Lucinda", a novel not only modern, but also topical to sensationalism, to allusions. Belinsky’s reservation that the Schlegels relied on Shakespeare “out of a strange contradiction with themselves” is also interesting: Shakespearephilism is deliberately taken out of the worldview and aesthetics of the romantics as a kind of foreign principle.

It may be said that Belinsky did not know enough Western European literature and was not familiar with the peculiarities of the romantic movement. This is true. However, wouldn't it be more accurate to say that not only did he not know, but also did not want know? He did not want to know, submitting to some general perspective of literary evolution. What - we will see below. But first, one more example of Belinsky's one-sided attitude towards Western European romanticism. And not only Belinsky, but also persons who significantly surpassed him in their philosophical education and awareness in Western European literature, such as N. I. Nadezhdin, D. V. Venevitinov, I. V. Kireevsky and others. We are talking about their attitude to Friedrich Schelling.

Schelling's connection with romanticism is well known - both creative and biographical (as a member of the Jena circle), and, one might say, intimate (if we recall the history of his relationship with Caroline, the ex-wife of August Schlegel). Meanwhile, neither Belinsky, nor Nadezhdin, nor many other Russian critics spoke of Schelling as a romantic, but, as a rule, as the antipode of romanticism. Here is a typical argument. Describing the atmosphere of the new century, Belinsky solemnly proclaims:

“In Schelling, he (XIX century - / O.M.) saw the dawn of infinite reality, which in the teachings of Hegel shone the world with a luxurious and magnificent day and which even before both great thinkers, misunderstood, appeared directly in the creations of Goethe” (article “Woe from the mind", 1840)

So, Schelling is on a par with Hegel and Goethe - unromantic phenomena, or, in any case, to a large extent unromantic.

Schelling is a very complex figure; everyone saw in him his own, kindred to himself. In particular, in Lectures on Aesthetics, Hegel considered the author of the System of Transcendental Idealism as his predecessor. Hegel included Schelling in a different, one might say, anti-romantic perspective, diverging from the one in which he placed, say, Tieck and the Schlegel brothers. This perspective led directly to Hegel's aesthetic system, and Schelling figured as its most important predecessor.

Belinsky knew the attitude of the author of Lectures on Aesthetics towards Schelling: this is documented by his reference to the so-called Katkov notebooks (summaries of Hegel's works made by M. Y. Katkov). However, it is not the reminiscence that is important, but the similarity of the approach. Belinsky also looked at Schelling from the point of view of the result - the "Hegelian" result of aesthetic thought. This is similar to Belinsky's attitude towards the German romantics - the brothers Schlegel and others. In one case, he does not want to see a romantic in Schelling, but only a herald of the future (Hegelian philosophy), in another case, from the same point of view, he wants to see only adherents in the romantics of the past. "Romanticism" has long been "already dismissed outright, ”Belinsky once said.

The formation and development of romanticism in the artistic culture of Russia in the first third of the 19th century was influenced by the following factors: the war of 1812, the Decembrist movement, the ideas of the Great French bourgeois revolution. A feature of Russian romanticism is the development and deepening of the tasks of the Russian Enlightenment in the art of romanticism in Russia, and this is the main difference between Russian romanticism and Western European, which was asserted in the struggle against enlightenment ideology. V. G. Belinsky gave a very accurate description of Russian romanticism: "Romanticism is a desire, aspiration, impulse, feeling, sigh, groan, complaint about unfulfilled hopes that had no name, sadness for lost happiness, which God knows what it consisted of" .

Romanticism in Russian literature is distinguished by a variety of currents: elegiac ( V.A. Zhukovsky), revolutionary ( K.F. Ryleev, V.K. Kuchelbecker), philosophical ( Baratynsky, Batyushkov), their interpenetration and conditionality of definitions.

Creativity is synthetic A.S. Pushkin, which already in this period of time is distinguished by the ripening of realistic principles in it. The world of Pushkin's heroes differs from the romantic heroes of Zhukovsky, Ryleev, and Byron in their folk originality and vivid figurative language.

A new stage in the development of romanticism in Russia begins after the Decembrist uprising. plays a special role in Russian romantic poetry. M.Yu.Lermontov- the direct heir of Pushkin and the Decembrists, a poet of his generation, "awakened by cannon shots on Senate Square" (A.I. Herzen). His lyrics are distinguished by a rebellious, rebellious character. His works are characterized by the hero's sharply critical view of modernity, longing for the ideal and "ardent defense of human rights to freedom" (VG Belinsky).

Russian romantic prose of the 19th century is presented V.F. Odoevsky, whose historical and fantastic novels are full of interest in the history, past of Russia, filled with miraculous, mysterious, folklore motifs. Fantastic stories A.Pogorelsky("The Black Hen", "Lafertov's Poppy Seed") - a combination of realism and fantasy, humor and lofty feelings, which are based on literary developments of Russian folk tales and folklore.

Western European and Russian romanticism interpenetrated each other and were mutually enriched in this process. The development of literary translation and the significance of Zhukovsky's activities as a translator and popularizer of masterpieces of European literature become especially significant at this time.

Romanticism in Russian Fine Art.

The main feature of romanticism in Russian painting is the combination of romanticism with realistic quests. There is a special interest in the spiritual world of man. The works of the Russian artist differ in psychologism and national originality O.A. Kiprensky: , . External calmness and internal tension of the images reveal a deep emotional excitement, the power of feelings. Warm, sonorous colors distinguish portraits created in the first two decades of the century. - the high spirituality of the image of the poet, the will, energy, subtle transmission of deeply hidden feelings of bitterness, mental pain imprinted in it. Female images (,) are distinguished by tenderness and poetry.

Realistic features appear in romantic works V.A. Tropinina(,). - a different, original interpretation of the poet, minister of music.

The traditions of classicism and the features of romanticism are in contact in the works K.P. Bryullova. The romantic pathos of the picture is clearly felt, the opposition in it of a sense of catastrophe, tragic hopelessness and selflessness, the spiritual beauty of people at the moment of mortal danger. In this canvas, the connection between the idea of ​​the painting and Russian reality at the beginning of the 19th century runs like a red thread. As a means of artistic expression, one can note the boldness of the color scheme, the contrasts of color and light, light reflexes. Bryullov's works of the Italian period, female images (,), male portraits (,) are distinguished by beauty and expressiveness.

Special mention should be made of the role of the self-portrait in the work of Russian romantic artists. It appears as a history of the spiritual life of society in the first half of the 19th century, showing the personality of a contemporary who reflected the world of deep human feelings and passions (self-portraits). Disappointment, loneliness of the hero, discord with society, portend the appearance of a "hero of our time" in Kiprensky's self-portraits (1822-1832). Doom, hopelessness, deep fatigue of "superfluous people" is felt in Bryullov's self-portrait (1848). And at the same time tragic sound, poetic subtlety of the image. The picturesque language of romantic artists is full of intense contrasts of light and shade, sonorous colors as a means of characterizing the characters.

Romanticism in Russian music.

The national rise of Russian self-consciousness had a special influence on the formation of professional musical art at the beginning of the 19th century.

Creativity of the great Russian composer M.I. Glinka- the beginning of a new era in the development of musical art. Glinka was a true singer of the Russian people.

In the works of Glinka, one can feel the indissoluble connection between music and folk soil, the artistic rethinking of folk images. In the work of Glinka, there is a connection with world musical culture, which we can hear in the reworkings of melodies from Italy, Spain, France, the East ("Jota of Aragon", "Tarantella").

The composer's ballads and romances based on poems by Russian poets are filled with romanticism. Their artistic perfection, complete and harmonious fusion of music and text, visibility, picturesque musical images, emotional elation, passion and subtle lyricism make Glinka's romances unsurpassed examples of musical creativity ("Night review", "Doubt", "I remember a wonderful moment", " Waltz Fantasy").

Glinka is also a realist, the founder of the Russian musical symphony school ("Kamarinskaya"), which manifested the best features of Russian realistic music, combined with the bright features of the romantic worldview: powerful passion, rebellious spirit, free flight of fantasy, strength and brightness of musical color.

The lofty ideals of Russian art appear before us in Glinka's operas. In the heroic-patriotic opera "Ivan Susanin" (the original title of this opera is "A Life for the Tsar") the composer strives to show typical features, to convey the way of thinking and feeling of the people. An innovation was the appearance on the opera stage as the main tragic hero of the Kostroma peasant. Glinka shows his typicality and individuality, while relying on a folk song in his musical description. The musical images of other heroes of the opera (Antonina, her fiancé, the Poles) are interesting. The introduction of Polish folk melodies (polonaise, mazurka) gives a peculiar flavor to certain scenes of the opera. Among the fragments of the opera that we recommend for listening are the tragic aria of I. Susanin and the solemn, jubilant, anthem sounding of the final chorus "Glory". The opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila" is a solemn hymn to light, goodness, beauty, an epic-epic interpretation of Pushkin's youthful poem. In musical dramaturgy, we will hear the principle of pictorial comparisons, the contrast inherent in the nature of Russian fairy tales and folk epic. The musical characteristics of the characters are fabulously bright. The music of the East in the opera is organically combined with the Russian, Slavic musical line.

When starting to analyze a romantic work, one must remember that the main method of the Romantics is antithesis (opposition), and works of literature, music and painting of romanticism are built on this method. In literature, these are images of the main characters that are opposite in their characteristics; in music, these are contrasting intonations, themes, their struggle and interaction; in painting - also contrasting colors, "talking background", the struggle of light and darkness.