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§ 5. Biocenosis. Diversity of biocenoses
The concept of biocenosis. Living organisms are found on Earth not in any random combinations, as independent individuals, but form regular complexes (communities). For the first time, the German biologist Karl August Moebius (1825-1908) drew attention to the possibility of identifying such communities. In 1877, he proposed the term biocenosis (from Greek bios- life and koinos- general, to make something common).
Biocenosis - this is a historically established group of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms inhabiting a relatively homogeneous living space (a piece of land or a body of water) (rice. 2.1).
So, each biocenosis consists of a certain set of living organisms belonging to different species. But we know that individuals of the same species are combined into natural systems called populations. Therefore, biocenosis can also be defined as the totality of populations of all types of living organisms inhabiting common habitats.
The composition of a biocenosis includes a set of plants in a certain territory - phytocenosis (from Greek phyton- plant), a set of animals living within the phytocenosis, - zoocenosis (from Greek zoon- animal), microbiocenosis - a set of microorganisms inhabiting the soil, and mycocenosis (from Greek mykes- mushroom) - a collection of mushrooms. Examples of biocenoses are deciduous, spruce, pine or mixed forest, meadow, swamp, etc.
Each biocenosis develops within a homogeneous space, which is characterized by a certain combination of abiotic factors, such as the amount of incoming solar radiation, temperature, humidity, chemical and mechanical composition of the soil, its acidity, terrain, etc. Such a homogeneous space (part of the abiotic environment) occupied by biocenosis is called biotope. This could be any piece of land or body of water, the seashore or the slope of a mountain. A biotope is an inorganic environment that is a necessary condition for the existence of a biocenosis. There is a close interaction between biocenosis and biotope.
The scale of biocenoses can be different - from communities of lichen cushions on tree trunks, moss hummocks in a swamp or a decaying stump to the population of entire landscapes. Thus, on land, one can distinguish the biocenosis of a dry meadow (not flooded with water), the biocenosis of a white moss pine forest, the biocenosis of feather grass steppe, the biocenosis of a wheat field, etc.
In the aquatic environment, biocenoses are usually distinguished in accordance with the ecological divisions of water bodies - biocenosis of coastal sandy or
silty soils, biocenosis of the tidal zone of the sea, biocenosis of large aquatic plants of the coastal zone of the lake, biocenosis of a fresh reservoir, etc. (Fig. 2.2).
A specific biocenosis includes not only organisms that permanently inhabit a certain territory, but also those that have a significant impact on its life, although they live in other biocenoses.
For example, many insects breed in bodies of water, where they are an important source of food for fish and some other animals. At a young age, they are part of the aquatic biocenosis, and as adults they lead a terrestrial lifestyle, i.e. act as elements of land biocenoses. Hares can eat in the meadow and live in the forest. The same applies to many species of forest birds that seek food not only in the forest, but also in adjacent meadows or swamps.
Species structure of the biocenosis. Each biocenosis can be described based on the totality of its constituent species. The species diversity of different biocenoses is different, which is due to their different geographical locations. It has been established: it decreases in the direction from the tropics towards high latitudes, which is explained by the deterioration of the living conditions of organisms.
For example, in the tropical rainforests of Malaysia, up to 200 species of tree species can be counted per 1 hectare of forest. The biocenosis of a pine forest in the conditions of Belarus can include a maximum of ten species of trees per 1 hectare, and in the north of the taiga region there are 2-5 species on the same area. The poorest biocenoses in terms of the set of species are alpine and arctic deserts, the richest are tropical forests.
If any species of plant (or animal) quantitatively predominates in a community (has greater biomass, productivity or numbers), then this species is called dominant, or dominant.
There are dominant species in any biocenosis. In the oak grove these are mighty oaks. Using the main share of solar energy and increasing the greatest biomass, they shade the soil, weaken air movement and create special conditions for the life of other forest inhabitants.
However, in addition to oaks, a large number of other organisms live in the oak forest. For example, earthworms living here improve the physical and chemical properties of the soil by passing particles of dead plants and fallen leaves through the digestive system. The oak and the worm make their own special contribution to the life of the biocenosis, but the role of the oak here is decisive, since the entire life of the oak forest is determined by this tree species and the plants associated with it. Therefore, oak is the dominant species in such a forest.
Spatial structure of the biocenosis. Species are distributed in space in accordance with their needs and habitat conditions. This distribution in space of the species that make up the biocenosis is called spatial structure of the biocenosis. There are vertical and horizontal structures of the biocenosis.
Vertical structure of biocenosis formed by its individual elements, special layers called tiers. Tier - co-growing groups of plant species, differing in height and position in the biocenosis of assimilating organs (leaves, stems, underground organs - tubers, rhizomes, bulbs, etc.). As a rule, different tiers are formed by different life forms (trees, shrubs, shrubs, herbs, mosses). The layering is most clearly expressed in forest biocenoses (Fig. 2.3). So, the first tier here is usually formed by the largest trees with highly located foliage, which is well illuminated by the sun. Unused light can be absorbed by smaller trees, forming a second, sub-canopy layer. About 10% of solar radiation is intercepted by the undergrowth layer, which is formed by various shrubs, and only from 1 to 5% by grass plants (herb-shrub layer).
The ground layer of mosses and lichens forms the moss-lichen layer. So, schematically, 5 tiers are distinguished in the forest biocenosis.
Similar to the distribution of vegetation, different animal species in biocenoses also occupy certain levels (Fig. 2.4). Soil worms, microorganisms, and digging animals live in the soil. Various centipedes, ground beetles, mites and other small animals live in leaf litter and on the soil surface. Birds nest in the upper canopy of the forest, and some can feed and nest below the upper tier, others in bushes, and still others near the ground. Large mammals live in the lower tiers.
Tiering is also observed in the biocenoses of oceans and seas. Different types of plankton stay at different depths, depending on the lighting, and different types of fish, depending on where they find food.
Living organisms are distributed unevenly in space. They usually form groups, which is an adaptive factor in their lives. Such groupings of organisms determine horizontal structure of the biocenosis.
Dissection in the horizontal direction - mosaic - is characteristic of almost all biocenoses. There are many examples of such a distribution. Many species of fish move from place to place in huge schools. Waterfowl and passerines gather in large flocks, preparing for long-distance flights. North American caribou form huge herds in tundra conditions. In the South American tropics, groups of ants, armed with powerful jaws and stings, line up in a 20-meter wide front and go on the attack, exterminating everyone who hesitates and is unable to escape.
The same examples can be given for plants: a spotted distribution of clover individuals in a meadow, spots of mosses and lichens, a cluster of lingonberry shrubs in a pine forest, extensive spots of sorrel in a spruce forest, strawberry glades on light edges.
The presence of mosaics is important for the life of the community. Mosaicism allows for more complete use of different types of microhabitats. Individuals forming groups are characterized by high survival rates and use food resources most efficiently. This leads to an increase in the number and diversity of species in the biocenosis, contributing to its stability and viability.
Relationships between organisms in biocenoses. Individuals of different species do not exist in biocenoses in isolation; they enter into various direct and indirect relationships with each other. Direct relationships are divided into four types: trophic, topical, phoric, factory.
Trophic relationships arise when one species in a biocenosis feeds on another (either the dead remains of individuals of this species, or the products of their vital activity). A ladybug feeding on aphids, a cow in a meadow eating lush grass, a wolf hunting a hare - these are all examples of direct trophic connections between species.
Topical relations characterize changes in the living conditions of one species as a result of the life activity of another. Spruce, shading the soil, displaces light-loving species from under its crown, crustaceans settle on the skin of whales, mosses and lichens are located on the bark of trees. All these organisms are connected to each other by topical connections.
Phoric relations - participation of one species in the spread of another. This role is usually played by animals that carry seeds, spores, and pollen. Thus, the seeds of burdock or string, which have clinging thorns, can be captured by the fur of large mammals and transported over long distances.
Factory relations - a type of relationship in which individuals of one species use excretory products, dead remains, or even living individuals of another species for their structures. For example, birds build nests from dry twigs, grass, mammal fur, etc. To build their houses, caddisfly larvae use pieces of sand bark, fragments of shells, or the shells themselves with live small species of mollusks.
Of all the types of biotic relationships between species in a biocenosis, topical and trophic connections are of greatest importance, since they hold organisms of different species near each other, uniting them into fairly stable communities of different scales.
Biocenoses can vary in size - from small (a hummock in a swamp, an anthill, cushions of lichens on tree trunks, a small pond) to very large (biocenosis of a forest, meadow, lake, swamp, feather grass steppe).
Biocenoses most often do not have clear boundaries. In nature, they transform into each other gradually, making it impossible to determine where one biocenosis ends and another begins. For example, the biocenosis of a dry forest gradually turns into a biocenosis of a moist meadow, which is replaced by a swamp. Visually, we can distinguish the forest biocenosis from the meadow and swamp, but we are not able to clearly say where the boundary line lies. In the vast majority of cases, we will be dealing with a kind of transitional strip of varying width and length, because hard, sharp boundaries in nature are a rare exception. Such the transitional strip (or zone) between adjacent physiognomically distinct communities is called an ecotone.
Historically established groups of co-living and interconnected organisms of different species are called biocenoses. The composition of the biocenosis includes phytocenosis, zoocenosis, mycocenosis and microrobocenosis. Each biocenosis is characterized by species and spatial (vertical and horizontal) structure and various biotic relationships of organisms.
All biocenoses, or communities of living organisms, especially natural ones, are very diverse. They are included in biogeocenoses (ecosystems) of various hierarchies - from the biosphere to microsystems - and are distinguished by the most complex combinations of plants, animals and microorganisms. Biocenoses have a great impact on the formation of landscapes and their evolution. The biosphere is characterized by an enormous diversity of communities. There are terrestrial and aquatic biocenoses. Zonal changes stand out in their mosaic. The replacement of lowland biocenoses with mountain ones is noticeable. In the zones, only similar types of communities or biomes are observed, but not species composition and populations. In zones, it is possible to combine biomes into provinces, regions and districts. In addition, there are differences in natural biocenoses depending on geological factors, relief, parent rocks, soils, etc. At this level, it is possible to assess species populations and the species composition of ecosystem biocenoses.
Human economic impact on nature and natural biocenoses differs in intensity, the structure of biocenoses changes greatly. As a result, natural communities are transformed into anthropogenic, or artificial, biocenoses, among which unique agricultural biocenoses, or agrocenoses, included in landscape-technogenic systems, stand out.
Settlements, reservoirs, ponds and canals, roads, open-pit mining, quarry and dump complexes, waste heaps, industrial karst (pseudokarst) in places of underground mining, deforested forests, anthropogenic burnt areas, defensive ramparts, trenches and craters radically change external appearance of territories, their biocenoses. As a result of unwise management and ignorance of the relationships between natural components, undesirable phenomena and processes often arise (quarry dumps, ravines in arable land, secondary salt marshes during irrigation, waterlogging, etc.). People can create modified biocenoses systematically, for example, gardens, forest belts, agricultural fields, forest parks, etc.
The largest scale changes in natural biocenoses occur during agricultural development of the territory. Thus, in the zone of broad-leaved and mixed forests, the forest area decreased by 50...60% or more, in the steppes and semi-deserts the area of virgin lands decreased and the sown area increased, which greatly changed the flora and fauna of forest-steppes, steppes and semi-deserts. A distinctive feature of field agricultural landscapes and their biocenoses is the predominance of cultivated plants. Of the natural vegetation in the former forest-steppes, steppes and semi-deserts, mainly weeds have survived. The composition of animals has also changed, in particular, the number of rodents, insects and birds, and agricultural pests has increased. Natural biocenoses used as pastures are significantly transformed (the species composition of plants, and therefore animals and microorganisms, changes).
Based on the nature and degree of transformation of the soil cover, the following agrocenoses are distinguished: developed virgin lands (natural forage lands with inherited vegetation, partially changed due to use); developed plowed (artificially created agrocenoses without any special soil changes); deposits and fallows; cultivated (improved due to effective use, various chemical, agrotechnical and other reclamation); anti-erosion organized (they use measures of varying complexity - agro- and forest reclamation, hydraulic engineering); anti-deflationary organized (system of shelterbelts, strip placement of crops and fallows); degraded, i.e. secondary saline, swampy, eroded, over-compacted; contaminated.
What is the difference between artificial and natural biocenosis?
Natural biocenoses are natural communities, while artificial ones are created by man.
What does the stability of a biocenosis depend on?
The stability of the biocenosis depends on the diversity of species and on the layering.
Questions
1. Why are there more order II consumers, but no II order producers?
Producers form organic matter by consuming energy from the sun. This means that they are all the first recipients of this energy, they all belong to the first order. Consumers can obtain organic matter by eating both herbivores and predators.
2. Why are cases of mass reproduction of pests observed in natural biocenoses much less often than in artificial ones?
Natural biocenoses are characterized by a wide variety of species. Artificial biocenoses have one or several sharply predominant species. This factor contributes to the mass reproduction of pests that have enough food.
3. Why can an aquarium and its inhabitants be considered an artificial biocenosis?
The composition of the flora and fauna, as well as the number of individuals, is regulated by man at his own discretion.
4. Why is it safest to kill pest beetles and their larvae (such as Colorado potato beetles) by hand-picking them for other organisms in nature?
When using manual collection of pest beetles and their larvae, human actions are aimed specifically at a specific species, without any impact on other organisms. During chemical treatment, the effect is directed towards the entire area and all organisms located on it. In this case, not only pests are destroyed, but also their natural enemies. This can further lead to a sharp increase in the number of pests themselves.
5. Why do producer organisms live in the upper layers of a reservoir, consumers can live at various depths, including at the bottom, and decomposers are mainly bottom inhabitants? Give examples of organisms belonging to each of these groups?
Producing organisms live in the upper layers of the reservoir, since their life is directly related to the amount of sunlight. Producers in water bodies include phytoplankton and algae. Consumers feed on other organisms, so they can live at any depth. Consumers of reservoirs are fish, shellfish, insects and their larvae, amphibians. Decomposers concentrate at the bottom of reservoirs as they feed on the remains of plants and animals that settle to depth. Decomposers are represented by bacteria and worms.
6. Why is there such a sequence of events: the development of crustaceans as part of zooplankton begins after the appearance of phytoplankton, and the spawning of some fish begins only after the accumulation of a sufficient amount of phytoplankton?
Phytoplankton are the main food source for zooplankton. Fish feed on zooplankton. When there is enough zooplankton, fish spawning begins.
7. Why is a specific composition of the animal population with a predominance of insect pests formed in agrocenoses? What other features of the life activity of these insect pests can you name?
A lot of plants of the same species live in an agrocenosis (monoculture), therefore, good conditions are created for consumers feeding on this species. The life of these insects directly depends on the type of plants that people plant. Each insect pest feeds on a specific group of plants. Herbivorous animals that have switched to feeding on cultivated crops find favorable conditions in agrobiocenoses and can severely damage cultivated plants. Sometimes in agrobiocenoses outbreaks of mass reproduction of animal pests occur, for example, the pest bug in wheat fields, the Colorado potato beetle in potato fields, the cabbage white butterfly in cabbage fields, field mice and voles in the cultivation of grain crops. Complexes of organisms, in addition to cultivated plants, in agrobiocenoses, as in natural biogeocenoses, are formed as a result of the struggle for existence and natural selection. However, humans, by creating favorable growing conditions for plants of cultivated species, suppress organisms of other species. For example, when there are a large number of weeds and insect pests, people use various chemical methods to destroy them.
Tasks
Prove that spatial and temporal tiers increase the stability of biocenoses.
The stability of biocenoses depends on the richness of their species composition. The more spatial tiers that can be distinguished in a biocenosis, the more life niches there are in it. This means that such a biocenosis will be inhabited by a larger number of species. Animals change their tier position throughout the day, year, and life, spending a longer time in one tier or another than in others. Its various invertebrate inhabitants are associated with certain depths of the soil, but they are not strictly confined to the underground layers. Thus, animals are characterized by temporary tiers. Temporary tiers allow maximum use of the resources of the biocenosis, which also increases its stability.
Give examples known to you that confirm the presence of temporal or spatial tiers in animals.
Examples of spatial layering: In mixed forests, birds and some insects live in the crowns of tall trees. The second tier is inhabited by birds and squirrels nesting below. The third tier is inhabited by forest mammals (roe deer, elk, wolves, foxes), the litter of grasses and leaves is inhabited by worms, larvae, and beetles.
Temporal layering: seasonal migrations of birds, nesting time, egg laying.
Lesson type - combined
Methods: partially search, problem presentation, reproductive, explanatory and illustrative.
Target: mastering the ability to apply biological knowledge in practical activities, use information about modern achievements in the field of biology; work with biological devices, instruments, reference books; conduct observations of biological objects;
Tasks:
Educational: the formation of cognitive culture, mastered in the process of educational activities, and aesthetic culture as the ability to have an emotional and value-based attitude towards objects of living nature.
Educational: development of cognitive motives aimed at obtaining new knowledge about living nature; cognitive qualities of a person associated with mastering the fundamentals of scientific knowledge, mastering methods of studying nature, and developing intellectual skills;
Educational: orientation in the system of moral norms and values: recognition of the high value of life in all its manifestations, the health of one’s own and other people; environmental awareness; nurturing love for nature;
Personal: understanding of responsibility for the quality of acquired knowledge; understanding the value of adequately assessing one’s own achievements and capabilities;
Cognitive: ability to analyze and evaluate the impact of environmental factors, risk factors on health, the consequences of human activities in ecosystems, the impact of one’s own actions on living organisms and ecosystems; focus on continuous development and self-development; the ability to work with various sources of information, transform it from one form to another, compare and analyze information, draw conclusions, prepare messages and presentations.
Regulatory: the ability to organize independent completion of tasks, evaluate the correctness of work, and reflect on one’s activities.
Communicative: the formation of communicative competence in communication and cooperation with peers, understanding the characteristics of gender socialization in adolescence, socially useful, educational and research, creative and other types of activities.
Technologies : Health conservation, problem-based, developmental education, group activities
Types of activities (content elements, control)
Formation in students of activity abilities and abilities to structure and systematize the subject content being studied: collective work - study of text and illustrative material, compilation of a table “Systematic groups of multicellular organisms” with the advisory assistance of student experts, followed by self-test; pair or group performance of laboratory work with the advisory assistance of a teacher, followed by mutual testing; independent work on the studied material.
Planned results
Subject
understand the meaning of biological terms;
describe the structural features and basic life processes of animals of different systematic groups; compare the structural features of protozoa and multicellular animals;
recognize organs and organ systems of animals of different systematic groups; compare and explain reasons for similarities and differences;
establish the relationship between the structural features of organs and the functions they perform;
give examples of animals of different systematic groups;
distinguish the main systematic groups of protozoa and multicellular animals in drawings, tables and natural objects;
characterize the directions of evolution of the animal world; provide evidence of the evolution of the animal world;
Metasubject UUD
Cognitive:
work with different sources of information, analyze and evaluate information, transform it from one form to another;
draw up theses, various types of plans (simple, complex, etc.), structure educational material, give definitions of concepts;
carry out observations, perform elementary experiments and explain the results obtained;
compare and classify, independently choosing criteria for the specified logical operations;
build logical reasoning, including establishing cause-and-effect relationships;
create schematic models highlighting the essential characteristics of objects;
identify possible sources of necessary information, search for information, analyze and evaluate its reliability;
Regulatory:
organize and plan your educational activities - determine the purpose of the work, the sequence of actions, set tasks, predict the results of the work;
independently put forward options for solving assigned tasks, anticipate the final results of the work, choose the means to achieve the goal;
work according to plan, compare your actions with the goal and, if necessary, correct mistakes yourself;
master the basics of self-control and self-assessment for making decisions and making informed choices in educational, cognitive and educational and practical activities;
Communicative:
listen and engage in dialogue, participate in collective discussion of problems;
integrate and build productive interactions with peers and adults;
adequately use verbal means for discussion and argumentation of one’s position, compare different points of view, argue one’s point of view, defend one’s position.
Personal UUD
Formation and development of cognitive interest in the study of biology and the history of the development of knowledge about nature
Techniques: analysis, synthesis, inference, translation of information from one type to another, generalization.
Basic Concepts
Concepts: biocenosis, layering, producers, consumers, decomposers, agrobiocenosis; stability of biocenoses, reasons for stability, comparison of natural and artificial biocenosis
During the classes
Updating knowledge ( concentration when learning new material)
Choose the correct answer in your opinion
1. Which of the following applies to artificial biocenoses?
field
2. What is the name of the set of populations that make up the biocenoa?
species diversity
dominants
biomass
3. What is the vertical spatial division of a biocenosis called?
tiering
layering
mosaic
4. What components does the biocenosis consist of?
producers and consumers
consumers and decomposers
producers, decomposers and consumers
5. What are the names of the components of a biocenosis - organisms capable of producing organic substances from inorganic ones?
producers
consumers
decomposers
6. What are the names of heterotrophs, organisms that consume ready-made organic substances created by autotrophs?
producers
consumers
decomposers
7. What are the names of organisms that destroy dead remains of living beings, turning them into inorganic and simple organic compounds?
decomposers
consumers
producers
8. What are predatory heterotrophs called?
consumers of the first order
second-order consumers
third-order consumers
9. Which of these organisms is a decomposer?
mushroom
10. Who is a second-order consumer?
eagle
mouse vole
Learning new material(teacher's story with elements of conversation)
Artificial biocenoses and their characteristics: agrocenosis, urbacenosis, technocenosis
Artificial biocenoses are created, maintained and managed by humans. Professor B. G. Ioganzen introduced into ecology the concept of anthropocenosis, that is, a natural system artificially created by people, for example, a public garden, terrarium or aquarium. Among artificial biocenoses, agrobiocenoses (agrocenoses) are distinguished - communities created by man to obtain any products.
These include:
reservoirs;
channels;
ponds;
drained swamps;
pastures;
fields for growing various crops;
forest shelterbelts;
artificially regenerated forest plantations.
The characteristic features of agrocenoses are:
Such artificial systems are ecologically quite unstable, and without human participation, agrocenoses of vegetable and grain crops will last about a year, agrobiocenoses of perennial grasses will last about three years. The most stable biocenoses are artificial fruit crops, since without human influence they can exist for several decades.
agrophytocenosis as the basis of life activity;
lack of self-regulation of the system;
low species diversity;
dominance of domestic animals or cultivated plants;
receiving additional support from humans (weed and pest control, fertilization, etc.);
the impossibility of long-term existence without human participation.
However, it should be noted that even the poorest agrocenoses in species diversity contain dozens of species of organisms belonging to various ecological and systematic groups. Any field sown by humans with fodder or agricultural crops is a biocenosis inhabited by various living organisms. Examples are a field of rye or wheat, where, in addition to the main crop, weeds also “live”; and various insects (both pests and their antagonists); and a variety of microorganisms and invertebrates.
Urbanecosystems- ecosystems of human settlements. By their structure, these are complex systems containing, in addition to residential buildings themselves, structures that serve people (industrial enterprises, transport and roads, parks, etc.). A significant portion of the world's population lives in cities (about 75%). The process of increasing the number of urban settlements, leading to the growth and development of cities, is called urbanization. A large city changes almost all components of the natural environment - the atmosphere, vegetation, soil, relief, hydrographic network, groundwater, soils and even climate. Climatic conditions in cities differ significantly from surrounding areas. Differences in temperature, relative humidity, and solar radiation between the city and its surroundings are sometimes comparable to movement in natural conditions by 20° latitude. The meteorological regime of the city is influenced by the following factors: a change in the albedo (reflectivity) of the earth's surface leads to heating of buildings and structures in the city and the formation of a “heat island”.
The average air temperature in a big city is usually 1-2 higher than the temperature of the surrounding areas, at night - 6-8 ° C; within the city, wind speed noticeably decreases, which leads to the formation of pockets with high concentrations of pollutants in the air; pollution of the atmosphere with various impurities contributes to the formation of anthropogenic aerosol, which leads to a sharp decrease in the amount of solar radiation (insolation) reaching the earth's surface by 15%, ultraviolet radiation - by an average of 30%, and contributes to an increase in the frequency of fogs - on average by 2-5 times, an increase in cloudiness and the likelihood of precipitation.
Increased rainfall over the city is to the detriment of other areas, increasing the aridity of the countryside; a decrease in the average amount of evaporation from the earth's surface leads to a significant decrease in air humidity in winter by 2%, in summer by 20-30%.
The problem of modern large cities is aggravated by a sharp lack of natural and spatial resources. Therefore, great importance should be given to urban planning issues. The planning of populated areas (urban planning) is understood as a branch of architecture that considers the issues of comprehensive organization of living space at the level of regions, groups of populated areas and individual cities and towns. In recent years, a direction of environmental planning has emerged in which environmental requirements dominate - ecological architecture.
Ecological architecture strives to take into account as much as possible the environmental and socio-ecological needs of a particular person from birth to old age. Modern forms of spatial organization and concentration of production make it possible to isolate the most aggressive economic objects in relation to the natural environment and humans, and to make valuable natural complexes more accessible.
For this purpose, functional zones are developed.
Residential (residential) zone designed to accommodate residential areas, public centers (administrative, scientific, educational, medical, etc.), green spaces. It prohibits the construction of industrial, transport and other enterprises that pollute the human environment. The residential area is located on the windward side for the prevailing winds, as well as upstream of the rivers in relation to industrial and agricultural enterprises with technological processes that are a source of release of harmful and unpleasant-smelling substances into the environment. In areas with opposite directions of prevailing winds in the summer and winter periods of the year, residential areas are located to the left and right of the indicated wind directions in relation to industrial enterprises.
Industrial Zone intended to accommodate industrial enterprises and related facilities. Industrial zones are formed taking into account production, technological, transport, sanitary, hygienic and functional requirements. The most hazardous enterprises, including explosive and fire hazardous ones, are located away from the residential area, and on the leeward side, i.e. in such a way that the prevailing winds blow from the residential area to the industrial area. Industrial zones with enterprises that pollute the water surface are located along the river below the residential and recreational areas. To improve the processes of dispersing emissions into the atmosphere, enterprises are located at higher elevations, thereby increasing the actual height of emissions. On the contrary, enterprises with contaminated industrial sites should be located at lower elevations than residential areas and recreation areas in order to avoid washing off pollution by stormwater into residential areas.
Sanitary protection zone designed to reduce the negative impact of industrial and transport facilities on the population. This zone of space and vegetation is specifically allocated between industrial enterprises and the residential area. The sanitary protection zone provides space for the safe dispersion of hazardous industrial waste. The width of the sanitary protection zone is determined and calculated on the basis of scientific materials on the pattern of distribution of air pollution, the presence of self-purification processes in the atmosphere, as well as the norms of maximum permissible concentrations of pollutants.
In accordance with environmental requirements, at least 40% of the sanitary protection zone must be landscaped.
Communal and warehouse area designed to accommodate commercial warehouses, warehouses for storing vegetables and fruits, transport service enterprises (depots, car parks), consumer service enterprises (laundry factories and dry cleaning factories), etc. The communal and warehouse zone is located outside the residential area, often in the sanitary protection zones of industrial enterprises. The external transport zone serves to accommodate transport communications of passenger and freight railway stations, ports, marinas, etc.
It is recommended that residential buildings in cities and other populated areas be separated from railway lines by a sanitary protection zone 100 m wide, from the edge of the roadway of highways and freight roads to the red line of residential buildings by at least 50 m, or additional noise barriers or forest belts should be constructed. The recreation area includes city and district parks, forest parks, sports complexes, beaches, holiday villages, resorts, and tourism sites.
A special place among the possible impacts in modern residential areas is occupied by impacts associated with changes in physical parameters.
Physical pollution- this is pollution caused by changes in the physical parameters of the environment: temperature and energy (thermal), wave (light, noise and electromagnetic pollution), radiation (radiation and radioactive pollution).
Thermal pollution formed when humans use additional energy from fossil fuels. Under the influence of additional heat, changes occur in the hydrochemical composition of groundwater (soil salinization), disruption of microbiological and soil-absorbing complexes, degradation and changes in the species composition of vegetation.
With increasing temperature in the body of humans and animals, there is an acceleration of the absorption of harmful substances and their entry into the blood, which leads to the rapid development of a toxic process, increasing sensitivity to the toxic effects of poisons, disruption of metabolism, and the functional state of the nervous system. Light pollution is the brightening of the night sky by artificial light sources whose light is scattered in the lower atmosphere. This phenomenon is sometimes also called light smog.
Light pollution affects the growth and development cycle of many plants. Common sources of white light with a large proportion of spectral blue light interfere with the orientation of many species of nocturnal insects, and also lead migratory birds astray as they try to fly around the centers of civilization. The effects of light pollution on the chronobiology of the human body have not been fully studied. There may be deviations in hormonal balance, which is closely related to the perceived day-night cycle.
Noise pollution. Natural sounds do not affect human environmental well-being: the rustling of leaves and the measured noise of the sea surf correspond to approximately 20 dB. Sound discomfort is created by anthropogenic noise sources with high (more than 60 dB) noise levels, which cause numerous complaints. The permissible traffic noise near the walls of houses should not exceed 50 dB during the day and 40 dB at night, and the general noise level in residential premises should not exceed 40 dB during the day and 30 dB at night.
To reduce noise along the path of its propagation, various measures are used: organizing the necessary territorial breaks, rational planning and development of the territory, using the terrain as natural screens, noise-protective landscaping.
Electromagnetic pollution. Electromagnetic fields (EMF) are one of the constant elements of the human environment and all living beings, under which the centuries-old evolution of organisms took place.
Thus, during periods of magnetic storms, the number of cardiovascular diseases increases. Constant magnetic fields in everyday life are created by various industrial installations, some devices, etc.
To ensure sanitary and hygienic standards for the quality of the urban environment, it is necessary to create an ecological framework - a system of combined and interconnecting natural areas of various sizes, the inextricable interconnection of which allows maintaining ecological balance and the living environment, biological diversity.
The basis of this frame is green spaces.
Green plants play a huge role in enriching the environment with oxygen and absorbing the resulting carbon dioxide.
The World Health Organization (WHO) believes that per 1 city dweller there should be 50 m2 of urban green spaces and 300 m2 of suburban ones. Green spaces improve the microclimate of urban areas, protect the soil, building walls, and sidewalks from excessive overheating, increase air humidity, trap dust particles, precipitate fine aerosols, and absorb gaseous pollutants.
Many plants secrete phytoncides - volatile substances that can kill pathogenic bacteria or inhibit their development. They protect the surrounding areas well from noise impacts. They have a beneficial effect on a person’s mental and emotional state.
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