By the 60-70s of the 19th century, the period of national liberation movements and revolutions, which had shuddered for several decades, was ending in Europe. Despite the defeat of some protests, a wave of struggle for the elimination of feudal remnants and national independence is sweeping across Europe. The peace that came to European countries gave impetus to their political and social development. The bourgeoisie occupied a special place in state and public life. The beginning of industrialization provided a way out of the economic crisis and the demographic growth of the European population.
Political development of European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
By the 70s. National liberation movements and revolutions in Western Europe are ending. Here bourgeois national states emerged in the form of constitutional monarchies or republics. The evolutionary nature of socio-political development began to prevail. A parliamentary system was formed on a two- or multi-party basis. The parliamentary platform provided an opportunity to express the demands and demands of broad sections of the population. Civil society was established with its knowledge of the principles of law and governance and autonomy of thinking.
In political life, the role of the industrial bourgeoisie, interested in the protection of a strong state to protect its property, increased. She put into service the state apparatus, parties, unions of entrepreneurs, and other auxiliary organizations.
England had a parliamentary monarchy and a two-party system. Liberals and conservatives alternated in power. The executive power and its administrative apparatus, represented by the Cabinet of Ministers, have strengthened.
In France, a republican system was established in 1870, but the position of the monarchists was still strong. The French bourgeoisie, encouraged by the democratic strata, waged a long struggle to strengthen the republic. In 1875, the constitution of the Third Republic was adopted, which provided for the creation of a bicameral parliament. The head of state was declared to be the president, elected by the chambers of parliament. He had great powers. In the struggle for the establishment of the republic and its democratization, France experienced at the end of the 19th century. several serious political crises.
In Germany, a constitution was adopted in 1871, according to which executive and partly legislative power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor. The highest representative body was the Reichstag, elected on the basis of universal suffrage. Laws passed by the lower house of parliament were subject to approval by the upper house and the emperor. He appointed a chancellor - a union minister responsible only to him. In Prussia, a three-class electoral law was maintained for elections to the local Landtag.
A bourgeois monarchy was established in Italy. Legislative power belonged to the king and parliament, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The king appointed and dismissed senior state officials and had the right to dissolve parliament. An extremely narrow layer of the propertied classes received the right to vote.
The aggravation of social contradictions and the growth of mass movements forced the ruling circles of many Western countries to democratize the political system, mainly through the expansion of voting rights. In England, the suffrage reform of the 80s. increased the number of voters in parliament at the expense of the petty bourgeoisie and the top of the working class. The suffrage reform in Italy (1882) gave the right to vote to average and even small property owners. In Germany, there was a persistent struggle by democratic forces to abolish the three-class electoral system in Prussia.
At the beginning of the 20th century. Politicians of a new formation came to power, realizing the need to use new methods of governing society. They began to implement reforms in social relations. Bourgeois reformism manifested itself mainly on the basis of liberalism, which seized the dominant position during the period of establishment of industrial society. Political leaders of liberal orientation in France (E. Combe, radicals), Italy (G. Giolitti), and England (D. Lloyd George) carried out some reforms in order to reduce social tension. In Germany, where liberalism was weaker, but the need for reform was felt, reformism was implemented on a conservative basis. His guide was the Imperial Chancellor B. von Bülow.
Social structure of European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
During industrialization, the social structure of European society changed. As a result of the combination of industrial and banking activities, a financial aristocracy emerged, which included a narrow circle of individuals and families. She formed the elite of Western society.
The symbol of power in France was the “200 families” that controlled the Bank of France. The psychology of the financial aristocracy intertwined extreme individualism and a sense of community towards one’s own kind.
Representatives of the old aristocracy played a significant role in society. In England, Germany, Italy and even in France, where the break with the feudal past occurred most radically, they were given access to power and business. People from the bourgeois strata sought to become related to them.
The Industrial Age created the conditions for entrepreneurship. A fairly large middle class emerged, uniting the bourgeoisie, bureaucrats, and intelligentsia. These were well-educated people, busy with work and possessing a practical mind. For them, interest in getting rich was combined with interest in business, in which they often saw the meaning of their lives.
The industrial revolution entailed the formation of a working class deprived of the means of production. Wage workers became the main producers of material goods.
The use of machines created conditions for the use of the labor of women and children. The gap in pay between skilled and unskilled workers was quite high.
Agriculture in most Western countries employed a significant portion of the working population. In England the peasantry has practically disappeared. He was replaced by tenants and farm workers. In other countries, the position of wealthy peasants and farmers strengthened, but there were still many small peasants, especially in France.
Demographic processes in European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
Industrialization and the growth of agricultural productivity created the material prerequisites for meeting people's needs for food and increasing the population. The “first demographic explosion” occurred. Population of Europe in the 19th century. doubled and by 1900 amounted to more than 400 million people. The population growth rate increased especially sharply in the second half of the 19th century, which is explained by a decrease in mortality along with a high birth rate. Advances in medicine in the fight against epidemics and improvements in healthcare have contributed to a reduction in mortality. In the last third of the 19th century. the highest population growth was observed due to the low mortality rate and high birth rate for that time. But at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries. There was a sharp downward trend in the birth rate. In many countries - England, Germany, Italy, Spain, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, the Scandinavian countries - a demographic revolution began, which meant a decrease in fertility and mortality, and an increase in life expectancy.
The demographic revolution began in France, which happened a century earlier, at the turn of the 18th - 19th centuries. It is directly related to the transformations caused by the French Revolution and the consequences of the Napoleonic Wars.
Late marriages are typical for Western European countries. The average age of marriage in Western countries was at the end of the 19th century. 25 - 28 years old. A new type of family was emerging, in which the practice of conscious birth control was observed, which was caused by social and cultural progress. The birth rate was lower among the propertied classes and middle strata, higher among unskilled workers and poor families.
A characteristic feature of family and marital relations has become an increase in the instability of marriages. However, divorce in the 19th century. It was possible only after a long and expensive procedure, so only representatives of the wealthy classes could obtain a divorce. In most cases, marriages were dissolved on the initiative of men. With the growth of their economic independence, women have become more proactive in divorcing a marriage.
Migration of the population of European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
XIX century is considered the century of mass migration movements. Migrations or movements of people were caused by many reasons - economic, political, national, religious.
The riches of the bowels of the New World and the expanses of land required workers. The legislation of the USA and Latin American countries patronized immigration. Recruitment centers and a wide network of incentive societies for resettlement were organized. In 1800 - 1900 28 million people emigrated from Europe to America. The first place in the number of migrants was occupied by England, from which about 13 million people left over the years. The main significance of resettlement movements was that they accelerated the economic development of countries that needed an influx of labor, led to the colonization of sparsely populated areas, and contributed to the involvement of various regions in the world economic system. At the same time, at the beginning of the 20th century. Migration from England and Germany has decreased significantly, but it has increased significantly from less developed countries - Italy, the Balkan countries, Eastern Europe. There has been an increase in migration from developed countries to economically backward ones with the aim of subjugating the latter. Migration from France to North Africa was of a similar nature. In general, European migration led to the settlement of many areas of North and Latin America, Australia, and Oceania.
Urbanization of European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
The rapid development of industrial production entailed urbanization, which means the concentration of population and economic life in cities, the growth of urban residents due to the reduction of rural ones.
The process of urbanization began primarily in England and was closely related to industrialization. In the middle of the 19th century. More than half the population of England lived in cities at the beginning of the 20th century. - 2/3 of its total number. London and its suburbs had more than 7 million inhabitants.
The influx of rural population into cities expanded the reserve army of labor and created new masses of consumers, which stimulated the development of mass production. Between 1880 and 1914, 60 million Europeans moved from villages to cities. In 1900 there were 13 millionaire cities.
Urbanization developed spontaneously, uncontrollably, which led to the spread of various social diseases - crime, alcoholism, prostitution, mental disorders. The condition of the urban environment deteriorated, leading to an environmental crisis. Therefore, city authorities began to pay more attention to the process of urban improvement. The development of medical knowledge made it possible to identify the causative agents of epidemics, the breeding grounds of which were poor neighborhoods where the population lived crowdedly, in unsanitary conditions. In the fight against epidemics, personal hygiene, air and habitat purification were required.
The layout of cities also began to change. New wide streets - avenues - were laid through the old center and suburbs. The need for the construction of public buildings - department stores, libraries, exhibition halls, sports facilities - has increased. There have been changes in construction technology, new building materials have appeared - metal, glass, concrete.
Enlightenment of European countries in the late 19th - early 20th centuries§
Technical progress and the associated transition to machine production required competent, qualified workers. Therefore, in Western countries in the second half of the 19th century. universal primary education is introduced. The number of literate men by the end of the century reached 75 - 90% of the total. In a public school, children were taught reading, writing, basic knowledge of arithmetic, and introduced to history and religious dogmas. Characteristic of the school learning process was the memorization of a certain minimum of knowledge.
Children of wealthy parents had the opportunity to receive a secondary education. With the development of industrial production, along with humanities-oriented gymnasiums, technical and real-life schools appeared, in which much attention was paid to the study of mathematics, physics, and chemistry. Secondary school was inaccessible to the majority of children both because it was paid and because the children of the poor were forced to earn a living from an early age.
After graduating from high school, education could be continued in higher educational institutions and obtain the profession of an engineer, agronomist, teacher, or doctor. Higher education everywhere was paid. Women were denied access to universities.
Life in European countries at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century§
The quality of nutrition of Western Europeans has generally improved, as the percentage of meat and fruit in the diet has increased. At the same time, alcohol and tobacco consumption increased. In Germany, the annual share of tobacco per person increased from 1 to 1.6 kg in 1870 - 1913. Coffee became a popular drink, although poor people were often content with its surrogate.
Families lived prosperously in palaces, mansions, and apartments furnished with expensive furniture. The interior changed simultaneously with changes in artistic styles. In the Napoleonic era, furniture was distinguished by its heaviness and clear geometric shape of an oval, circle, or rectangle. The furnishings of the house were coldly formal and ceremonial. In the middle of the century, furniture became lighter and more elaborate, upholstered in plush and velvet (second Rococo). The Art Nouveau style of the end of the century brought sluggish outlines, streamlined shapes, and asymmetry. Luxury and well-being were emphasized - dark colors in the interiors, soft quilted furniture, heavy drapery.
Fashion in clothing dictated by the court gave way to bourgeois fashion. The men's suit as a whole acquired uniformity, efficiency, and practicality. It began to be more strictly divided according to functional purpose. Blazers and jackets became work clothes, and tailcoats became dress clothes. At the end of the 19th century. Tuxedos (England) came into fashion, which they wore when going to a men's club, theater, or restaurant.
The woman's clothing was very varied and was designed to emphasize the wealth and prosperity of her husband. At the beginning of the 19th century. the woman's dress resembled a tunic, the belt was located just under the chest, at the bottom of the skirt and on the sleeves there were many flounces. Women's attire was complemented with expensive jewelry. In the middle of the century, in women's fashion, where France set the tone, the style of the Second Empire established itself - clothes were extremely pretentious. The crinoline came into use, which was a gathered domed skirt with many petticoats or steel hoops. Gold lace was especially fashionable in decoration. At the end of the 19th century. With the advent of new vehicles (cars, trams) and the spread of sports exercises, women's clothing became simpler. An important factor that influenced changes in clothing was women’s desire for equality and their struggle for education. Women employees, doctors, and teachers appeared. A skirt with a blouse, a suit consisting of a skirt and jacket, and a coat came into use.
Ordinary people wore what did not interfere with their work and what they could afford. The folk costume was replaced by the pan-European urban type, although many of its details were preserved (ornament, decorations).
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The origins of the First World War. Plans of the parties
The First World War was preceded by the following major wars:
Spanish-American (1898), US imperialists sought to seize economically and strategically important islands in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans and in the Caribbean Sea belonging to Spain. The outcome of this war was in favor of the United States, which predetermined the immeasurable economic and military superiority of the states over feudal Spain.
Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902). The reason for the war was England's intention to capture two small Boer republics in southern Africa (now South Africa), on whose territory there were rich deposits of gold and diamonds. In 1900, England sent an army of 200,000 against the Boers (later increasing its number to 450,000). Defending their independence, the Boers created an army of 60 thousand people on a police basis. However, despite the partisan movement, they were forced to stop resistance in 1902.
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Its reason was the clash of interests of tsarist Russia and imperialist Japan, which was seeking to turn Korea, Manchuria and other areas of the Far East into its colonies. Russia had 300 thousand soldiers and 57 warships. Japan, with the help of the United States and England, created a large army - 370 thousand people and 73 warships. Russia underestimated the enemy's strength and was poorly prepared for war. Military failures and the growing revolution within the country forced the tsarist government to accept the peace terms dictated by Japan.
The First World War, which began on August 1, 1914 and lasted until November 11, 1918, arose as a result of the intensification of the political and economic struggle between the largest imperialist countries of Europe. This led to the division of the world into two hostile camps and the emergence of two groups: the Triple Alliance - Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy and the Triple Entente or Entente - England, France and Russia.
The war between the major European powers was beneficial to the US imperialists, since as a result of this struggle, favorable conditions emerged for the further development of American expansion, especially in Latin America and the Far East. American monopolies relied on maximizing benefits from the war in Europe.
Due to the fact that the war for the redivision of the world affected the interests of all imperialist countries, most of the world's states gradually became drawn into it. The war became global, both in its political goals and in scale.
In preparing for the war, the imperialists saw in it:
Firstly, a means of resolving external contradictions;
Secondly, a means that could help them cope with the growing discontent of the population of their own countries and suppress the growing revolutionary movement.
By its nature, the war of 1914-1918 was imperialistic, aggressive, unfair on both sides. It was a war over who could plunder and oppress more.
The military action plans of the main participants in the war did not sufficiently take into account the increased role of economic and moral factors and were designed to conduct battles using mobilization reserves accumulated in peacetime. It was believed that the war would be short-lived.
Characteristic in this regard is the German strategic plan (Schlieffen Plan), which outlined the rapid defeat of the obviously superior forces of the Entente by conducting large offensive operations, first against the armies of France and England, and then against Russia. This circumstance determined the choice of the strategic form of the offensive - a flank bypass and encirclement of the main enemy forces. In order to bypass and encircle the French army, a flank maneuver was planned to be carried out through Belgium, bypassing the main forces of the French army from the north. In the east, it was planned to deploy 15-16 divisions, which were supposed to cover East Prussia from a possible invasion by Russian troops.
Although the Schlieffen plan had such positive aspects as taking into account the factors of surprise and the role of strategic initiative, the correct choice of the direction of the main attack and the concentration of forces in the decisive direction, in general it turned out to be flawed, since it incorrectly assessed the capabilities of one’s troops and the enemy.
The Austro-Hungarian war plan was strongly influenced by the demand of the German General Staff to pin down the Russian armies during the period when Germany delivered the main blow to France. In this regard, the Austro-Hungarian general staff planned simultaneously active actions against Russia, Serbia and Montenegro. The main blow was planned to be delivered from Galicia to the east and northeast. The Austro-Hungarian plan was built without real consideration of the country's economic and moral capabilities. The availability of forces did not correspond to the assigned tasks.
The French plan, although it provided for active offensive actions, was of a passive wait-and-see nature, since the initial actions of the French troops were made dependent on the actions of the enemy. The plan provided for the creation of three strike groups, but only one of them (Lorraine) received an active task - to attack Lorraine and Alsace. The central group should become a link covering the border in its own zone, and the Belgian group should act depending on the behavior of the enemy. If the Germans begin to advance through Belgian territory, then this army must be ready to attack in a north-easterly direction; if the Germans did not take active action in neutral Belgium, it was supposed to advance in an eastern direction.
The British plan proceeded from the fact that the allies - Russia and France - should bear the brunt of waging war on land. The main task of the British armed forces was considered to ensure supremacy at sea. For operations on land, it was planned to transfer seven divisions to France.
The Russian war plan, due to the economic and political dependence of Tsarist Russia on Anglo-French capital, provided for simultaneous offensive actions against Austria-Hungary and Germany. The plan had two options.
Option "A". If Germany concentrated its main forces against France, then the main efforts of the Russian army were directed against Austria-Hungary.
Option "G". In the event that Germany delivered the main blow to Russia, the Russian army turned its main efforts against Germany. The Northwestern Front was supposed to defeat the 8th German Army and capture East Prussia. The Southwestern Front was tasked with encircling the Austro-Hungarian troops located in Galicia.
By the beginning of the First World War, the strategic deployment of troops in accordance with the accepted war plans was completed by Germany and France after 16-17 days. It took Russia 30 days to mobilize and deploy troops. By the beginning of the war, neither side had an overall superiority in forces.
Thus:
1. In the era of imperialism, when the contradictions inherent in capitalist society reach an extreme degree of aggravation, when the development of capitalism proceeds extremely unevenly and spasmodically, when there is an all-out increase in political reaction and military aggression, aggressive, predatory, predatory wars are waged to redistribute the world, for world domination. In the era of imperialism, wars develop into world wars.
2. The formation of alliances of the largest states of Europe was a clear preparation for war and indicated the irresistibility of its approach. Internal and external contradictions forced the ruling circles of European states to accelerate the outbreak of war. The imperialists tried to instill in the people the idea of the inevitability of armed clashes, instilled militarism in every possible way, and incited chauvinism. The bourgeoisie, playing on the patriotic feelings of peoples, justified the arms race and disguised aggressive goals with false arguments about the need to protect the Fatherland from external enemies.
3. What was common to all the plans of the countries participating in the First World War was that they expressed the aggressive aspirations of individual powers, as well as both warring coalitions. At the same time, they reflected sharp contradictions between individual imperialist states within coalitions, each of which sought to place more of the military burden on its allies and gain more wealth by dividing the spoils.
Strategic plans were lacking in purpose, did not clearly define the direction of the main attacks and did not ensure the creation of the necessary superiority to achieve the goals of the war.
The first period of modern history opened with a tragic chapter in the history of mankind - the First World War. But it did not so much resolve previous problems and contradictions as it gave birth to new ones. The causes of the First World War are manifold.
Main reasons for the war:
The struggle for spheres of influence between the leading countries of the world;
The desire for a new redistribution of colonies;
The growth of internal political contradictions in European countries and the desire to solve or avoid them through war;
Formation of opposing military-political alliances: the Entente and the Triple Alliance, the arms race, the militarization of the economy.
Participants:
Entente: France + UK + Russia
Triple (Quadruple) Alliance:
Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy + Türkiye
- Italy + Bulgaria
Mutual claims:
Great Britain:
Germany is the main rival in European politics, in maritime trade and in the struggle for colonies;
There was an undeclared economic and trade war between the countries;
Great Britain could not forgive Germany for supporting the Boers in the Anglo-Boer War of 1899–1902
But at the same time, she sought to maintain Germany as a rival to Russia and France on the European continent;
She sought to take away the oil-rich lands of Mesopotamia and the Arabian Peninsula from Turkey.
These and other foreign policy interests led Great Britain to abandon the policy of “splendid isolation” and enter into an anti-German alliance.
France:
Germany is the main enemy on the European continent;
She sought to take revenge for the defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870;
She hoped to return Alsace and Lorraine, to annex the Saar coal basin and the Ruhr;
French goods could not compete with German ones on the European market;
She was afraid of losing her colonies in North Africa.
For these reasons, France became an active participant in the anti-German bloc.
Russia:
She sought to expand her territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary, annexing Galicia;
Claimed control over the Black Sea straits of the Bosporus and Dardanelles;
Regarded the construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway as a violation of the agreement on the division of spheres of influence in the Balkans;
She hoped to maintain the role of “protector of all Slavic peoples” in the Balkans, supporting the anti-Austrian and anti-Turkish struggle of the peoples of the Balkans.
With the help of a victorious war, Russia sought to push back the time for solving pressing internal problems.
To solve these problems, Russia found allies in Great Britain and France.
USA:
They sought to penetrate the European market;
They hoped to increase their influence in Asia and increase penetration into China.
Those. become an active participant in European politics.
Germany:
The young, dynamic state sought military, economic and political leadership;
The active conquest of sales markets led to a clash of interests with Great Britain;
She sought to preserve and expand colonial possessions at the expense of France, Holland, Belgium, and Great Britain;
Interfered in the politics of the Middle East region.
Germany most aggressively sought dominance in world politics.
Austria-Hungary:
Expand your territory at the expense of Russia, Romania, Serbia;
Take away from Russia the role of “defender of all Slavic peoples”;
Strengthen the authority of imperial power through a victorious war;
Suppress the growing anti-Austrian sentiments among the peoples of the multinational empire.
Confronted with interests from Russia, Austria-Hungary found itself in the same bloc with Germany.
Italy:
The young state sought to strengthen its authority in Europe;
He hoped to gain territorial gains in Europe and the colonies.
However, Italy had very limited capabilities for waging war, so at the beginning of the war it declared its neutrality and subsequently sided with the Entente.
Türkiye:
Competed with Russia and Great Britain for dominance over the Black Sea straits and influence on Middle Eastern politics;
She sought to suppress the growing national liberation movement of the conquered Slavic peoples on her territory.
Occasion:
On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Bosnia - Sarajevo - a member of the secret Serbian patriotic organization "Young Bosnia" Gabriel Princip killed the nephew and heir of the Austro-Hungarian Emperor, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia.
Beginning of the war:
On July 23, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia demanding that Austrian police be allowed into the country to investigate the murder. Serbia rejected this demand.
On July 29, Russia announced mobilization. Germany issued an ultimatum to Russia demanding an end to mobilization. Russia rejected the ultimatum.
August 1 Germany declared war on Russia. This date is recognized as the beginning of the First World War.
| ENTENTE | TRIPLE ALLIANCE |
| Highly professional British Army and Navy; The inexhaustible human resources of the Russian army, the courage of Russian soldiers; BUT Industrial backwardness of Russia, poor development of communications. Corrupt and incompetent leadership of the Russian army; The British army is small The Allies are geographically cut off from each other The French army was not prepared for a prolonged conflict; | The German army was the best in Europe in terms of training and organization; The German population was embraced by high patriotism and faith in their great destiny. Highly equipped with heavy artillery, machine guns, submarines, a wide network of railways. The Austro-Hungarian army was built following the example of the German army. Strategic preparation for war. BUT the multinational composition of the Austro-Hungarian army |
Both sides were not ready for a long positional war; they did not expect the infantry to lose the ability to move. The most striking example of the incorrect assessment of the nature of modern warfare by the commands of both sides was the widespread belief in the overriding role of cavalry.
Schlieffen plan.
Schlieffen Plan- strategic plan for lightning war, developed by the Chief of the General Staff of Germany von Schlieffen.
The essence of the plan: within the first month, defeat France by invading its territory through Belgium, because Russia will need at least a month and a half to fully mobilize and concentrate its troops on the border. Then it was planned to transfer all German troops against Russia and end the war in two months.
However, from the first days events did not develop as the German command had planned:
Belgium offered determined resistance;
France launched an offensive into German territory and invaded Alsace and Lorraine;
Great Britain entered the war;
Russia launched an offensive without waiting for the full deployment of its troops.
By September the plan for a lightning war was foiled.
Progress of military operations. (independent work of students)
Study the course of military operations from available sources and evaluate them from the point of view of one of the warring parties
| date | Event | Result |
| 5 - 12 September 1914 August - September 1914 October 1914 December 1914 | Battle of the Marne Battle of Galicia Battle of Tannenberg Austro-Hungarian troops launched an attack on Serbia. Turkey entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, declaring war on Russia, Great Britain and France. Great Britain established a continental naval blockade of Germany Counter-offensive of the Serbian army Sarakamysh operation (Transcaucasia) | Anglo-French troops stopped the advance of the German army. A 600 km Western2 front was formed from the borders of Switzerland to the Atlantic coast. Germany is forced to fight a war on two fronts. The Russian army occupied Lvov. The German army surrounded the Russian army. Russia lost about 20 thousand people killed and was forced to leave East Prussia. They captured 45% of the territory of Serbia, including the capital, Belgrade. The Caucasian Front was formed. German cruisers entered the Black Sea and fired at Odessa, Sevastopol, Novorossiysk, and Feodosia. The small German fleet was locked in the ports of the North and Baltic seas. The territory of Serbia was cleared of the troops of the Habsburg Empire, Serbian troops continued their offensive on the territory of Austria-Hungary. The Declaration of Niš was adopted, which formulated Serbia’s strategic goal in the war: the unification of all South Slavic lands around the Serbian Karadjordjevic dynasty. The Russian army defeated the Turkish army and transferred the fighting to Turkish territory. |
Results of the military campaign of 1914:
The strategic plans of the countries of the Quadruple Alliance were thwarted, the plan for a lightning war failed. Germany is forced to fight a war on two fronts.
The war became protracted, turning into a positional (“sedentary”, trench) war. The parties abandoned large-scale hostilities, which were now mainly of a defensive nature.
The war required the mobilization of all economic and human resources of the warring states. 38 states, in which approximately 75% of the population lived, were involved in the war; more than 70 million men fought in the active armies.
| date | Event | Result |
| January 1915 February - March 1915 April 1915 May 1915 Autumn 1915 | German aircraft began to carry out raids on the east coast of England. Anglo-German naval battle at Dogger Banks in the North Sea Beginning of the Russian army's offensive in the Carpathians French offensive in Champagne. English attack on Nevshtal Russian troops captured the Przemysl fortress Germany declared unrestricted submarine war on Great Britain The Anglo-French fleet attacked the Dardanelles (Turkish fortifications) German gas attack at Ypres (chlorine) Entente troops landed in the Gallipoli area (Turkey) Counter-offensive of the German-Austrian army on the Eastern Front Italy withdrew from the Triple Alliance and entered the war on the side of the Entente. A German submarine sank the huge American passenger liner Lusitania. Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Triple Alliance, attacking Serbia. | The German cruiser Blücher was sunk. These actions did not bring tangible results to the Allies. Over 100 thousand Austrians were captured. The Austro-German command concentrated its main forces on the Eastern Front. The waters surrounding England and Ireland were declared a military zone and any ship in these waters would be subject to |
Perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in Eastern European countries. Meanwhile, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s. refused to preserve the regimes that existed in these countries, on the contrary, calling on them to democratize. The leadership of most ruling parties has changed. But the new leadership's attempts to carry out reforms, as in the Soviet Union, were unsuccessful. The economic situation worsened, and population flight to the West became widespread. Opposition forces formed, demonstrations and strikes took place everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October-November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 9 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were held in which former oppositionists won. These events were called “velvet revolutions”. However, revolutions were not “velvet” everywhere. In Romania, opponents of head of state Nicolae Ceausescu staged an uprising in December 1989, resulting in the deaths of many people. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. In 1991, Slovenia, Croatia and Macedonia declared independence. In Croatia, war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II at the hands of the Croatian Ustasha fascists. Initially, the Serbs created their own republics, but by 1995 they were captured by the Croats with the support of Western countries, and most Serbs were exterminated or expelled.
In 1992, Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY).
An ethnic war broke out in Bosnia and Herzegovina between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. The armed forces of NATO countries intervened on the side of the Bosnian Muslims and Croats. The war continued until the end of 1995, when the Serbs were forced to succumb to pressure from superior NATO forces.
The state of Bosnia and Herzegovina is now divided into two parts: the Republika Srpska and the Muslim-Croat federation. The Serbs lost part of their lands.
In 1998, open conflict broke out between Albanians and Serbs in Kosovo, which was part of Serbia. The extermination and expulsion of the Serbs by Albanian extremists forced the Yugoslav authorities to enter into an armed struggle against them. However, in 1999, NATO began bombing Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav army was forced to leave Kosovo, whose territory was occupied by NATO troops. Most of the Serbian population was destroyed and expelled from the region. On February 17, 2008, Kosovo, with Western support, unilaterally and illegally declared independence.
After the overthrow of President Slobodan Milosevic in 2000 during the “color revolution”, disintegration continued in the FRY. In 2003, the confederal state of Serbia and Montenegro was formed. In 2006, Montenegro separated and two independent states emerged: Serbia and Montenegro.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia occurred peacefully. After a referendum, it split in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy, moving to the restoration of market relations. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations went down in history as “shock therapy”, as they were associated with a drop in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased.
By the end of the 90s. The situation in most countries has stabilized somewhat. Inflation was overcome and economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland have achieved some success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. But the global economic crisis that began in 2008 had devastating consequences for the economies of Eastern European countries.
In foreign policy, all countries of Eastern Europe are oriented towards the West, most of them at the beginning of the 21st century. joined NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
In 1989–1990, radical changes took place in all Eastern European states, as a result of which communist parties were removed from power. They received two names: a) “velvet” revolutions (meaning that the change of ruling political forces occurred peacefully, without violence and blood, with the only exceptions being Romania and Yugoslavia); b) democratic revolutions (implies the transition from totalitarianism to democracy).
There are several points of view on the nature of the events of 1989–1990. The most reasoned and generally accepted is that these were mass people's democratic revolutions. As a result of mass uprisings (especially in the GDR, Czechoslovakia, Romania), new political forces came to power and began to implement changes of revolutionary content. In Poland, Hungary, and Yugoslavia, although they were not accompanied by mass movements at this particular time, they were the result of long-term evolutionary processes of the 80s. This evolution occurred under mass pressure and led to revolutionary political changes.
The scale of changes at the turn of the 80s and 90s is noteworthy. Over the course of about a year, from mid-1989 to mid-1990, a series of revolutions took place in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. A phenomenon unprecedented in Europe since 1848 took place - a chain reaction of the influence of one country on others. In June 1989, the anti-socialist opposition won the parliamentary elections in Poland. In October of the same year, at the congress of the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party, the reformist trend won, which reorganized the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party into a social democratic party and spoke out for a market economy and a variety of forms of ownership. In November, the plenum of the Central Committee of the Bulgarian Communist Party removed T. Zhivkov, and in Czechoslovakia, after student unrest, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was removed from power. In November-December 1989, a coalition government was formed in the GDR. December brought the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime in Romania. In January 1990, the actual collapse of the SKY took place, and the disintegration of Yugoslavia began. In May 1990, a general strike led to the formation of a coalition government in Albania.
The revolutions of 1989–1990 in the countries of the region were the result of national crises and a combination of internal and external factors. The main foreign policy prerequisite was “perestroika” in the USSR, which prepared the way for the destruction of the previous system ideologically and politically: this means glasnost, new things in ideology, Moscow’s refusal to dictate in the socialist camp. Analyzing internal factors, it should first of all be emphasized that socialism as a path of development and its Stalinist model were generally foreign to European countries. None of them was able to adapt to it either through national specifics, or through partial reforms, or through crises. The conservative administrative-command system turned into an obstacle to development: the actual one-party system did not allow taking into account the requirements of the time; the monopoly on power led to the political and moral degradation of the leading layer of the party-state and economic apparatus; the dominant ideology found itself in a state of stagnation.
It is also necessary to pay attention to the fact that in the countries of the region some elements or remnants of civil society remained: non-communist parties within the framework of national fronts in Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and other informal associations. Economic problems have accumulated and worsened. All of the above, taken together, determined the need for radical changes and the rapid collapse of the administrative-command system in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe.
The content of revolutions is a radical change in the political forces in power. In some countries (for example, Poland and Czechoslovakia), power passed to clearly non-socialist and even anti-communist movements. In others (for example, in Bulgaria and the Yugoslav republics of Serbia and Montenegro), the communist parties and their programs were modernized, which allowed them to retain power for some time.
The general direction of all revolutions is one-dimensional. Their destructive aspect was directed against totalitarianism, the absence or violation of civil rights, against the ineffective administrative-command economy, and corruption. The creative side was focused on establishing political pluralism and real democracy, the priority of universal human values, developing the economy according to the laws in force in highly developed countries, and increasing living standards. If we formulate the positive direction of revolutions very briefly, then it is necessary to highlight two main directions of movement - towards democracy and the market.
The destructive aspect was fruitful - the previous political systems died very quickly. With the creation of a new society, things were not so simple and fast; the transition to a market economy was especially slow. There are many reasons for this. Objective factors include the archaic and cumbersome economic structure, the need for huge investments in production and the social sphere, and different starting positions of states. Czechoslovakia and the GDR can somewhat conditionally be classified as states with a fairly high level of development, Poland, Hungary, Croatia and Slovenia are countries of average development, and Bulgaria, Romania, four other republics of the former Yugoslavia (Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina), Albania – low. Among the subjective circumstances, one should note the persistence of anti-capitalist forces, the high social cost of reforms (unemployment, inflation) and various forms of protest, the psychology of egalitarianism established under socialism, and the lack of the necessary scientific justification for changes.
The events of 1989–1990 were characterized by the instability of the ideological and political forces participating in them. They can be described as anti-totalitarian, but more precisely, it is impossible, since they were far from a clear ideological and socio-political self-determination. In essence, these were shaky coalitions of very diverse, socio-politically and ideologically, unformed movements (for example, “Solidarity” in Poland, “Civil Forum” in Czechoslovakia). They were united only in the fight against the old government, so soon after the victory the motley associations disintegrated. Each country had a large number of political parties that sought power and found it difficult to find a common language. The path to stability was very difficult due to the generally difficult economic situation, social tension, acute political confrontations, and nostalgia of a significant part of the population for the times of socialism.
From a social point of view, the main content of the modern period is manifested in the dynamic stratification and polarization of society. On the one hand, a small group of rich people appeared, on the other, workers deprived of their previous social protection. Stratification accelerates as market relations take shape and covers all segments of the population, but to varying degrees. The number one dramatic social problem is unemployment.
From the standpoint of geopolitics and international relations in Europe and the world, the revolutions at the turn of the 80s and 90s led to a sharp change in the foreign policy and economic orientations of the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. At the turn of 1990–1991 The military-political Warsaw Pact Organization was liquidated. CMEA, introducing on January 1, 1991 mutual settlements in convertible currencies died, which dealt a severe blow to the economies of all Eastern European states. Since the very beginning of the 90s, the vast majority of countries in the region (with the exception of Serbia and Montenegro) have been characterized by a desire to join the European Community, NATO and other Western structures as quickly as possible. At the same time, it became clear that their integration with the West would be difficult, long and painful.
NATO expansion threatened to upset the existing balance of international forces. It met with strong opposition from Russia and Belarus, who did not want to border on the states of the super-powerful bloc. And yet, the process of NATO's movement to the east has begun. In the spring of 1999, the first group of Eastern European states - the Czech Republic, Poland, and Hungary - was admitted to the bloc. During the aggression of NATO countries against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (March - June 1999), all former socialist countries of Central-Eastern Europe supported military actions against the two Yugoslav republics, provided their airspace for NATO aircraft, etc. Macedonia has allocated its territory for the deployment of the bloc's ground forces before introducing them into Kosovo. During and after the anti-Yugoslav aggression, the states neighboring the FRY (Macedonia, Bulgaria, Bosnia and Herzegovina) accelerated their movement into NATO. In general, this course is being pursued by all states of Central-Eastern Europe, with the partial exception of Serbia, Montenegro, and Albania. It seems that in the near future there will be a further expansion of the NATO bloc at the expense of another group of countries in the region.
The process of countries in the region joining the European Community (EU) is more complex and lengthy. On the one hand, the states of Central and Eastern Europe would like to quickly receive great benefits and benefits from economic unification with the most developed countries of Europe (investments in structural restructuring of the economy, direct financial assistance in raising living standards to Western European standards, a single market for labor, goods and capital). On the other hand, the EU countries are aware of both the need to find huge sums to bring the economic systems of Central European states up to the level of Western Europe, as well as the complexity and duration of the processes of economic restructuring in the former socialist countries. Therefore, the European Community did not speed up the process of its own enlargement. Only at the summit in December 2001. The leaders of the EU states decided to admit the first group of Central European countries into their ranks in 2004 and determined a list of “applicants” of 10 republics. The rest (including Bulgaria and Romania) were asked to wait until at least 2007.
We have to admit that during the 90s, Russia lost its role as a center of economic gravity for the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. Its place was taken by Germany, Italy, Austria, etc. In 1999, the countries of the European Union accounted for up to 60% of the foreign trade turnover of the states in the region.
The process of eliminating socialism in the countries of the region as a whole followed similar paths. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to some national characteristics of both the events of 1989–1990 and subsequent developments.
Poland. At the plenum of the Central Committee of the PUWP (January 1989), supporters of radical reforms achieved decisions on the transition to political pluralism and on the dialogue of the Communist Party with other socio-political forces. In February - April 1989, a series of round table meetings were held (PUWP, opposition, Catholic Church), at which the parties agreed to resolve opposition activities and legalize Solidarity
", changing the election law. The opposition won the parliamentary elections (June 1989). At the end of 1989, a coalition government was formed in Poland, which was headed by the representative of Solidarity and the Catholic Church T. Mazowiecki and in which there were only four ministers -
communist
After this, the process of formation of new political and economic structures accelerated. Even the name of the state has changed: Rzeczpospolita Polska (Republic of Poland) instead of the PPR. President in the 1991 elections. Former Solidarity leader L. Walesa was elected. “Solidarity” split, and a significant part of the members of this trade union party went into opposition to the government and the president. The PUWP was transformed into the Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland in January 1990, supporting a multi-party system and a market economy. There are over 50 parties in the country, many of which are Catholic.
The transition of the economy to the laws of the market took place under the leadership of the Minister of Finance L. Baltserovich and was carried out using the “shock therapy” method. Free prices were immediately introduced, borders were opened for foreign goods, and the privatization of state property began. The market stabilized, but Polish industry more or less adapted to the new conditions only in the mid-90s. Unemployment was and remains widespread. Serious economic problems persist, despite great help from the West (investments, “writing off” half of the external debt).
Internal political life in the 90s was characterized by instability. Governments changed frequently. President Walesa was constantly in conflict with parliament. Since November 1995, the leader of the Social Democrats, Aleksander Kwasniewski, has been the President of Poland.
East Germany. In the summer of 1989, the emigration of GDR citizens to the Federal Republic of Germany became widespread - by the end of the year, over 200 thousand had moved to West Germany. Mass demonstrations took place in many cities demanding the immediate start of political and economic reforms. In October 1989, E. Honecker was forced to resign from senior positions in the party and state. The parliament excluded the article on the leading role of the Communist Party from the constitution and formed a coalition government. The border with West Berlin was opened. The SED admitted its mistakes and abuses and changed its name to the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS).
In the parliamentary elections (March 1990), the PDS was defeated. The process of preparation for the unification of East and West Germany began. The symbol of the Iron Curtain, the Berlin Wall, was destroyed. By decision of the parliaments of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany, on July 1, 1990, an agreement on the economic and monetary union of the two parts of Germany came into force. On October 3, 1990, the GDR ceased to exist, and five new federal states of the Federal Republic of Germany appeared in its place. The two parts of Germany united.
Czechoslovakia. In the fall of 1989, demonstrations of the opposition took place, which consolidated, began to lead the masses and demanded a transition to a multi-party system and a market economy. After the dispersal of the Prague student demonstration on November 17, 1989, there was an increase in protest. The opposition created the socio-political association “Civil Forum”, headed by Vaclav Havel. It led mass protests under the slogans of a return to democracy and humanism.
In December 1989, the Communist Party of the Communist Party essentially capitulated, agreeing with the parliament's decision to abolish the constitutional article on the leading role of the Communist Party. The Federal Assembly elected A. Dubcek as its chairman, V. Havel as the president of the country, and formed a multi-party government. In 1990-1991 The country received the name of the Czech and Slovak Federal Republic. Denationalization began, an agreement was concluded on the withdrawal of Soviet troops. Economic restructuring proceeded without any particular social upheaval. A lustration law was adopted, prohibiting former functionaries of the Communist Party of Human Rights and state security workers from holding any leadership positions.
In the parliamentary elections (June 1992) in both the Czech Republic and Slovakia, parties won, whose leaders immediately announced an imminent but civilized “divorce” of the two republics. At the July (1992) presidential elections in the Federal Assembly, V. Havel, a supporter of a unified state of Czechs and Slovaks, was not elected. A. Dubcek, who was standing in the same positions, died in a car accident. At the end of November 1992, parliament approved the liquidation of the CSFR by a slight majority. On the night of January 1, 1993, new states appeared on the political map - the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
The President of the Czech Republic is V. Havel (in January 1998 he was elected to a second five-year term). Until the end of 1997, the country's government consisted of representatives of right-wing political forces, and the prime minister was the leader of the Civil Democratic Party, V. Klaus. Since 1998, socio-economic activities in the country have been carried out by the “left” government, headed by the leader of the Czech Social Democrats, Milos Zeman.
The number one strategic direction of all domestic policy in the Czech Republic remains unchanged throughout the existence of the republic - an active transition to the market and civil society, but without shock therapy. Economic reform is proceeding very successfully, with the best indicators among former socialist countries.
Since 1999, the Czech Republic has been a member of NATO. It is part of a group of countries whose admission to the European Union is scheduled for 2004. The Czech Republic's largest trading partner is Germany (approximately 1/3 of imports and exports).
In Slovakia, reforms are proceeding somewhat more slowly, but with good results. Since the late 90s, a coalition of right-wing and centrist forces has been in power (President Rudolf Schuster, government of M. Dzurinda).
Bulgaria. Radical reforms in this country were started “from above” - by the new communist leadership. The Communist Party retained power for some time, and then continued to occupy quite strong political positions in the country.
The collapse of the Bulgarian “perestroika” led in November 1989 to the removal of T. Zhivkov. Foreign Minister Petr Mladenov was elected General Secretary of the Central Committee of the BCP, who soon took over the established post of President of Bulgaria. In January 1990, at an extraordinary congress, the BCP adopted the “Manifesto on Democratic Socialism” (recognition of the deformations of socialism, condemnation of the national policy of T. Zhivkov, refusal of a leadership role, course towards a radical renewal of socialism in Bulgaria). Shortly after the congress, the BCP was renamed the Bulgarian Socialist Party (BSP).
The Union of Democratic Forces (SDS) was created, which united 16 anti-communist parties. This movement became the main opposition force. It was headed by the philosopher Zhelyu Zhelev.
In June 1990, parliamentary elections were held, in which the BSP gained a slight advantage over the opposition. But in August 1990, the Great People's Assembly elected Zh. Zhelev as president, and at the end of the year formed the first coalition government, in which the socialists had more than half of the portfolios.
Zh. Zhelev was the President of Bulgaria until the end of 1996. In 1997–2001. The head of state was Petr Stoyanov, a representative of anti-socialist forces. In November 2001 The leader of the Socialist Party, Georgiy Parvanov, was elected president for a five-year term.
The government of the country was alternately composed of socialists and right-wing parties. Since the summer of 2001 The Prime Minister of Bulgaria is the country's former monarch Simeon II.
Romania. In December 1989, a peaceful demonstration with anti-dictatorship slogans took place in the small town of Timisoara. It was brutally suppressed by security forces and troops. The city workers responded to the massacre with a general strike, which was the beginning of a democratic revolution. Unrest gripped many cities. In Bucharest they took the form of a clash with government troops. By order of Ceausescu, special forces opened fire on the protesters, but the army as a whole declared its neutrality, and later went over to the side of the rebels.
The building of the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party was seized by demonstrators. For several days there were battles in the capital with special forces loyal to the dictator. The resistance was soon suppressed, and power passed to the National Salvation Front. N. Ceausescu and his wife Elena were captured and executed by a military court.
Yugoslavia. In January 1990, at the XIV (extraordinary) Congress of the Union of Communists, the collapse of the federal state began. The delegations of Slovenia and Croatia left after refusing to accept their proposals to hold multi-party elections in 1990 and to transform the republican committees into independent parties. As a result, there was an actual split in the SKYU, the social democratization of the republican communist parties began, numerous new parties and movements emerged, and the ideas of nationalism and anti-communism quickly and widely spread.
In 1990, elections to republican assemblies (parliaments) were held, in which the former communist parties were defeated in Croatia and Slovenia, did not receive a majority in Macedonia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, but retained power in Serbia and Montenegro. After the elections, the real disintegration of the SFRY begins, which was facilitated by the loss of the integrating factor in the person of the SKYU, the strengthening of centrifugal tendencies, and large socio-economic and cultural differences between the republics.
In the second half of the 1990s, Slovenia and Croatia declared their state sovereignty and began to form the main institutions of the state (the army in the first place). The federal authorities and Serbia opposed the republics' withdrawal from the multinational state. In May 1991 military operations began against Croatia and Slovenia, which lasted until March 1, 1992. They were stopped under the influence of the following factors: a) Western recognition of the independence of Slovenia, Croatia and other Yugoslav republics; b) development of the process of disintegration (separation from the federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia); c) strong pressure from the international community (UN, West, Russia). Military clashes were most violent on Croatian territory.
In September 1991 A referendum was held in Macedonia, as a result of which a new sovereign republic was proclaimed. The Yugoslav army was withdrawn without armed clashes.
In April 1992, Serbia and Montenegro united to form the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (the so-called “small Yugoslavia”). Of course, Serbia and its leader Slobodan Milosevic dominated it until the end of the 90s, determining foreign and domestic policy.
The most tragic events were the events of the first half of the 90s in Bosnia and Herzegovina, known as the “Bosnian crisis”. Here in 1992 - 1995 there was a civil war with an interethnic character.
The population of Bosnia and Herzegovina is multinational - 40% Muslims (“Bosniaks”), 32% Serbs, 18% Croats. In 1990–1991 there was a sharp polarization of the population and political parties along national lines. Muslims and Croats were in favor of the sovereignty of the republic, Serbs were against it. In January 1992, the Assembly of Bosnia and Herzegovina, by a majority vote (Croats and Muslims), approved a memorandum of sovereignty and elected the leader of the Muslim community as president. The Serbian faction left parliament, and the Serbian regions declared their autonomy and disobedience to the decision of the Assembly.
In April 1992, in accordance with the memorandum, Bosnia and Herzegovina was declared independent and immediately recognized by the EU. In the same month, civil war begins in Bosnia. At the end of April, the “Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina” was self-proclaimed. In June 1992, the federal army withdrew, and from that time on the war continued between the formations of the three communities.
In June 1992, by decision of the UN Security Council, harsh economic sanctions were introduced against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the Bosnian Serbs, subjectively recognized as the aggressors and the only culprits of the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Since 1992, UN peacekeeping forces (“blue helmets”) have been stationed on the territory of the former Yugoslavia, performing the following functions: separation of warring parties, monitoring compliance with truces, and guarding humanitarian convoys. The international community also developed and tried to implement several plans for a peaceful settlement of the Bosnian crisis, but for various reasons they were not implemented.
From August 1995, NATO forces began launching massive attacks on Bosnian Serb military targets, thereby supporting a large-scale Muslim and Croat offensive. The Serbs were defeated and lost a significant part of their territory. The success of this combined operation against Republika Srpska predetermined future agreements on Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In October 1995, a truce came, and in late October - mid-November, negotiations were held at the American air base in Dayton between delegations of Croatia, Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Serbia (representing the interests of the Bosnian Serbs). On December 14, 1995, a ceremonial signing of the peace treaty took place in Paris, which was attended by the leaders of the states that guarantor its compliance (USA, England, France, Germany, Russia). The main provisions of the Dayton agreements can be reduced to the following: a) Bosnia and Herzegovina is a single (externally) state with a president, parliament, and government; b) it consists of two parts - the Croatian-Muslim Federation (51% of the territory) and the Serbian Republic (49%); c) the division of lands, compliance with the treaty and maintenance of peace are provided by the so-called multinational forces (mainly from NATO countries and under the command of this bloc), which replace UN peacekeeping battalions; d) sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia are gradually being lifted. In the second half of the 90s, the situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina outwardly normalized, but it still does not exist as a single state. The multinational force continues to remain as the only guarantor of peace in Bosnian lands.
In the late 90s, important events took place in and around Serbia and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. An anti-socialist opposition was formed and actively operated in Serbia, opposing primarily the president of the republic, the leader of the Socialist Party, Slobodan Milosevic. In 1997, S. Milosevic, fearing defeat in the elections in Serbia, achieved his own election to the post of President of the FRY.
1999 – the apogee of the Kosovo crisis. Let us recall that Kosovo is an autonomous region within Serbia, at least 90% of whose population at the end of the twentieth century were Albanians. Since the late 40s, active efforts have been carried out here to separate the region from Serbia and Yugoslavia. In 1990, the “Declaration of Independence of Kosovo” was adopted. In 1997, the Albanian Kosovo Liberation Army was formed, which soon declared open war on Belgrade under the slogan of complete independence and annexation to Albania. Since the spring of 1998, a real civil war with an ethnic character and numerous casualties began in the region.
The West accused Serbia and the FRY of genocide against the Kosovo Albanians and offered to sign an agreement that actually separated Kosovo from Serbia a few years later. The refusal of the Yugoslav delegation to sign the humiliating document served as the pretext for NATO aggression against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (March–June 1999). It was attended by 19 developed countries of the world with an economic potential equal to 679 of Yugoslavia. It took place without UN sanction. More than 25 thousand air raids were carried out, more than 1 thousand cruise missiles and 31 thousand depleted uranium shells were fired.
The leadership of the FRY (S. Milosevic) and Serbia was forced to capitulate. A multinational armed force was introduced into Kosovo, dominated by NATO troops. Since the end of 1999, there has been a gradual sovereignization of the region (in violation of the UN Security Council resolution on the territorial integrity of the FRY) and the ousting of the remnants of Serbs and Montenegrins from it.
In 2000, S. Milosevic lost the presidential elections in the FRY to Vojislav Kostunica. In 2001 the new Prime Minister of Serbia, Zoran Djindjic, ordered the extradition of S. Milosevic to the International Tribunal for the Investigation of War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia (The Hague).
During the Second World War, the authority of leftist forces, primarily communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 In all countries, new constitutions were adopted, monarchies were abolished, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took strong positions in parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which the bourgeois democratic parties opposed. At the same time, the process of merging communists and social democrats with the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe provided powerful support to the communists. In the context of the outbreak of the Cold War, a bet was placed on accelerating transformations. This largely corresponded to the sentiments of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and many saw the construction of socialism as a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with enormous material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won a majority of seats in the Polish Sejm. The Sejm elected communist B. Bierut as president. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the communists, through multi-day mass rallies of workers, achieved the creation of a new government in which they played a leading role. Soon, President E. Benes resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party, K. Gottwald, was elected as the new president.
By 1949, power was in the hands of communist parties in all countries of the region. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, the multi-party system has been preserved, but in many ways it has become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic ties between the USSR and the people's democracies were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR strictly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control has been exercised by the successor to the Comintern, Cominform. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), created in 1949, began to play a great role in expanding and strengthening economic ties. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, and Albania later joined. The creation of CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The goals of CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in developing the economies of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation of the Warsaw Pact Organization (WTO) in 1955 was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants pledged, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, weapons and troop organization were unified.
Development of the countries of “people's democracy” in the 50s - 80s of the twentieth century.
| Lech Walesa | Lech Walesa(September 29, Popowo, Tłuchowo commune) - Polish politician, activist and human rights defender, first leader of the Solidarity trade union, President of Poland in 1990-1995. https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walensa,_Lech |
By the mid-50s. xx century As a result of accelerated industrialization, significant economic potential has been created in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But the policy of preferential development of heavy industry with insignificant investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decline in living standards.
Stalin's death (March 1953) raised hopes for political change. The leadership of the GDR in June 1953 proclaimed a “new course”, which provided for the strengthening of law and order and an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in workers’ production standards served as an impetus for the events of June 17, 1953, when demonstrations began in Berlin and other large cities, during which economic and political demands were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these protests, which the country's leadership assessed as an attempt at a “fascist putsch.” However, after these events, wider production of consumer goods began and prices decreased.
The decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the need to take into account the national characteristics of each country were formally approved by the leadership of all communist parties, but the new course was not implemented everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy of the leadership ledto a sharp aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, which led to a crisis in the fall of 1956.
The protests of the population in Poland led to the rejection of forced collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary, a reformist wing arose within the Communist Party. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of reformist forces. Their leader I. Nagy headed the government. Rallies took place throughout the country, and reprisals against communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2,700 Hungarians and 663 Soviet soldiers died in street fighting. After the “purge” carried out by the Soviet intelligence services, power was transferred to J. Kadar. In the 60-70s. XX century Kadar pursued a policy aimed at improving the standard of living of the population while preventing political change.
In the mid-60s. The situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. Economic difficulties coincided with calls from the intelligentsia to improve socialism and give it a “human face.” The party approved in 1968 a program of economic reforms and democratization of society. The country was headed by A. Ducek, a supporter of reforms. The leadership of the CPSU and the Communist Party of Eastern European countries reacted sharply negatively to these changes.
Five members of the leadership of the Communist Party of Human Rights secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent the “threat of counter-revolution.” On the night of August 21, 1968, troops from Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Relying on the presence of Soviet troops, opponents of the reforms went on the offensive.
Prague. 1968 |
At the turn of the 70-80s. XX V. crisis phenomena emerged in Poland, which had developed quite successfully in the previous period. The deteriorating situation of the population caused strikes. In their course, a trade union committee “Solidarity”, independent from the authorities, emerged, headed by L. Walesa. In 1981, the President of Poland, General W. Jaruzelski, introduced martial law, and the leaders of Solidarity were subjected to house arrest. However, Solidarity structures began to operate underground.
Yugoslavia's special path.
Josip Broz Tito | Josip Broz Tito(Tito is a party pseudonym combined with the surname), in Soviet documents he is mentioned under the name Josip Francović Brozović (May 7, 1892 (officially May 25, 1893), Kumrovec, Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, Austria-Hungary - May 4, 1980 , Ljubljana, Socialist Republic of Slovenia, SFRY) - Yugoslav revolutionary and political figure. Leader of Yugoslavia from 1945 until his death in 1980. From December 1937 he headed the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. He has been Chairman of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia since 1966 https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broz_Tito,_Josip |
In Yugoslavia, the communists who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945 took power. Their Croat leader I Broz Tito became the president of the country. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a rupture in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not intervene militarily.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued to follow its own path. At enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected workers' councils. Planning from the Center was transferred to the localities. The focus on market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. In agriculture, almost half of the farms were individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. General leadership was provided by the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (UCY). Tito has been the chairman of the UCJ since 1952. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Changes in Eastern Europe At the end of the twentieth century.
The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. abandoned the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries; on the contrary, it called on them to “democratize”. Most of the ruling parties there have had new leadership. But the attempts of this leadership to carry out reforms similar to the perestroika ones, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. The economic situation has worsened. The flight of the population to the West became widespread. Opposition movements to the authorities were formed. There were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of the demonstrations of October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, and on November 8 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the unification of the GDR and the Federal Republic of Germany took place.
In most countries, communists were removed from power by popular demonstrations. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Soon elections were held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events were called “velvet revolutions”. Only in Romania, opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. In 1991, the regime changed in Albania.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where parties opposed to the communists won elections in all republics except Serbia and Montenegro. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991. War between Serbs and Croats immediately broke out in Croatia, as the Serbs feared persecution that had taken place during World War II at the hands of Croatian Ustasha fascists. Later, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence. After this, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, conflict began between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. It lasted until 1997.
The collapse of Czechoslovakia took place differently. After a referendum, it peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in 1993.
After political changes, transformations began in all Eastern European countries in the economy and other spheres of social life. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and the command-administrative management system, and the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, and foreign capital gained a strong position in the economy. The first transformations were called “shock therapy” because they were associated with a production crisis, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has increased everywhere, crime and corruption have increased. The situation was particularly difficult in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. XX century The situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. The greatest successes have been achieved in the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were gradually restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are oriented towards the West; they have set a course for joining NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
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Chronology of events in Eastern Europe
1940s– in the countries of Eastern Europe there was a wave of coups that brought the communists to power; During these years, new states appeared on the map of Europe.
1945– formation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia led by the communist government of Josip Broz Tito. Yugoslavia included Serbia (including the Albanian autonomies of Kosovo and Metohija, Vojvodina), Montenegro, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia.
1949– division of Germany into two states: the Federal Republic of Germany (included the occupation zones of the USA, Great Britain and France) and the German Democratic Republic (occupation zone of the USSR).
1955- the creation of a military alliance of European socialist states (Warsaw Pact Organization - WTO), in which the main role belonged to the USSR. It included the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia.
Mid 1950s- a wave of popular uprisings associated with the onset of the thaw in the USSR.
1953- an uprising of workers of the GDR against increasing production standards, with demands to abolish political censorship and release political prisoners. By order of the USSR, the rebels were shot and arrested.
1956- uprising in Hungary against the pro-Soviet regime. The uprising was suppressed by Soviet troops during multi-day street battles. About 3,200 people died.
1956– uprising of workers in Poland against pro-Soviet henchmen.
1961- construction of the Berlin Wall in order to stop the mass exodus of residents of East Berlin (GDR) to Germany.
1968- Alexander Dubcek came to power in Czechoslovakia and began to pursue a policy of expanding civil liberties and introducing market elements into the economy. August 20–21, 1968- Warsaw Pact troops were brought into Czechoslovakia. Dubcek's policies and armed suppression of the peaceful reform program went down in history as the “Prague Spring”.
1968– anti-government protests by students in Poland.
1980– a series of strikes in Poland due to price increases. After the victory of the general strike, an independent workers' organization, Solidarity, was created, led by Lech Walesa, which would later play a big role in the history of Poland.
1981- General Wojciech Jaruzelski came to power. To counter the workers' organization Solidarity, martial law was introduced in the country.
1989– weakening of Soviet support for the governments of Eastern Europe, strengthening of centrifugal tendencies in Eastern Europe. Pro-Soviet regimes collapsed very quickly and mostly peacefully (with the exception of Nicolae Ceausescu’s regime in Romania, which resisted in multi-day street battles). New governments began to make the transition to a market economy.
1989- a general anti-government protest in Czechoslovakia led by the opposition union “Civil Forum”, President Vaclav Havel came to power, and the parliament was headed by Alexander Dubcek. The change of power in Czechoslovakia went down in history as the “Velvet Revolution”. In 1992, Czechoslovakia split into the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
1989- the decision of the GDR government to allow an unhindered transition from East Berlin to West Berlin, which led to the spontaneous dismantling of the Berlin Wall.
1990- the official cessation of the existence of the GDR, its entry into the Federal Republic of Germany.
1991– declaration of independence of Croatia and Slovenia. The Yugoslav army, which tried to maintain the unity of the country by force, started a war that led to the collapse of the state of Yugoslavia.
1992– the independence of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was recognized (Serbia and Montenegro remained within it).
1997–1999- national military conflict in Kosovo between Serbs and Albanians. NATO supported the Albanians' course towards independence; NATO forces carried out the bombing of Belgrade. Kosovo became an independent state, not recognized by Serbia.
2006– declaration of independence of Montenegro. The final end of Yugoslavia's existence.
Since the 1990s The gradual integration of Eastern European countries into the European Union and NATO begins.
The period under review was peaceful and stable for the countries of Western Europe and the United States compared to the first half of the century, which included several European wars and two world wars, two series of revolutionary events.
The dominant development in the second half of the 20th century is considered to be significant progress along the path of scientific and technological progress, the transition from industrial to post-industrial society. However, even in these decades, the countries of the Western world faced a number of difficult problems, such as technological and information revolutions, the collapse of colonial empires, global economic crises of 1974-2975, 1980-1982, social uprisings in the 60s. 70s etc. All of them required one or another restructuring of economic and social relations, the choice of ways of further development, compromises or toughening of political courses. In this regard, different political forces came to power, mainly conservatives and liberals, who tried to strengthen their positions in a changing world. The first post-war years in European countries became a time of intense struggle over issues of social order and the political foundations of states. In a number of countries, for example in France, it was necessary to overcome the consequences of the occupation and the activities of collaborationist governments. And for Germany and Italy, it was about the complete elimination of the remnants of Nazism and fascism, the creation of new democratic states. Significant political battles unfolded around the elections to constituent assemblies and the development and adoption of new constitutions. In Italy, for example, events related to the choice of a monarchical or republican form of state went down in history as the “battle of the republic”; the country was proclaimed a republic as a result of a referendum on June 18, 1946.
In the conservative camp, from the mid-40s, the most influential parties became those that combined the representation of the interests of large industrialists and financiers with the promotion of Christian values as enduring and uniting different social strata with ideological foundations. These included: the Christian Democratic Party (CDP) in Italy, the People's Republican Movement in France, the Christian Democratic Union in Germany. These parties sought to gain broad support in society and emphasized their commitment to the principles of democracy.
After the end of the warestablished in most Western European countries coalition governments, in which the decisive role was played by representatives of the left forces - socialists and, in some cases, communists. Main events These governments were the restoration of democratic freedoms, the cleansing of the state apparatus from members of the fascist movement, persons who collaborated with the occupiers. The most significant step in the economic sphere was the nationalization of a number of economic sectors and enterprises. In France, 5 largest banks, the coal industry, and the Renault automobile plant (whose owner collaborated with the occupation regime) were nationalized.
The 50s constituted a special period in the history of Western European countries. It was a time of rapid economic development (industrial output growth reached 5-6% per year). Post-war industry was created using new machines and technologies. A scientific and technological revolution began, one of the main directions of which was production automation. The qualifications of the workers who operated the automatic lines and systems increased, and their salaries also increased.
In the UK, wages rose by an average of 5% per year in the 1950s, with prices rising by 3% per year. In Germany, during the 50s, real wages doubled. True, in some countries, for example in Italy and Austria, the figures were not so significant. In addition, governments periodically froze wages (prohibiting their increase). This caused protests and strikes by workers. The economic recovery was especially noticeable in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy. In the post-war years, the economy here was more difficult and slower to establish than in other countries. Against this background, the situation in the 50s was regarded as an “economic miracle.” It became possible thanks to the restructuring of industry on a new technological basis, the creation of new industries (petrochemicals, electronics, production of synthetic fibers, etc.), and the industrialization of agricultural areas. American assistance under the Marshall Plan provided significant assistance. A favorable condition for the rise in production was that in the post-war years there was a great demand for various industrial goods. On the other hand, there was a significant reserve of cheap labor (due to migrants from the village). Economic growth was accompanied by social stability. In conditions of reduced unemployment, relative stability of prices, and rising wages, workers' protests were reduced to a minimum. Their growth began in the late 50s. , when some negative consequences of automation appeared - job cuts, etc. After a decade of stability in the life of Western European states, a period of shocks and changes began, associated both with problems of internal development and with the collapse of colonial empires.
Thus, in France, by the end of the 50s, a crisis situation had developed, caused by the frequent change of governments of socialists and radicals, the collapse of the colonial empire (the loss of Indochina, Tunisia, Morocco, the war in Algeria), and the worsening situation of the working people. In such a situation, the idea of “strong power,” an active supporter of which was Charles de Gaulle, received increasing support. In May 1958, the command of French troops in Algeria refused to submit to the government until Charles de Gaulle returned to it. The general stated that he was “ready to take over power in the republic,” subject to the abolition of the 1946 Constitution and the granting of emergency powers to him. In the fall of 1958, the Constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted, giving the head of state the broadest rights, and in December de Gaulle was elected president of France. Having established a regime of personal power, he sought to resist attempts to weaken the state from within and without. But on the issue of colonies, being a realistic politician, he soon decided that it was better to carry out decolonization “from above,” while maintaining influence in his former possessions, than to wait for a shameful expulsion, for example, because of Algeria, which fought for independence. De Gaulle's readiness to recognize the right of the Algerians to decide their fate caused in 1960. anti-government military mutiny. And yet, in 1962, Algeria gained independence.
In the 60s, protests by different segments of the population under different slogans became more frequent in European countries. In France in 1961-1962. Demonstrations and strikes were organized demanding an end to the rebellion of ultra-colonialist forces who opposed the granting of independence to Algeria. In Italy there were mass protests against the activation of neo-fascists. The workers made both economic and political demands. “White collar” workers—highly qualified workers and white-collar workers—were included in the struggle for higher wages.
Crisis of 1974-1975 seriously complicated the economic and social situation in most Western European countries. Changes were needed, a structural restructuring of the economy. There were no resources for it under the existing social policy; state regulation of the economy did not work. Conservatives tried to answer the challenge of the time. Their focus on a free market economy, private enterprise and initiative was well aligned with the objective need for widespread investment in production.
At the end of the 70s and the beginning of the 80s. Conservatives came to power in many Western countries. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the parliamentary elections in Great Britain, and the government was headed by M. Thatcher (the party remained in power until 1997). In 1980, Republican R. Reagan was elected President of the United States . It was not for nothing that the leaders who came to power during this period were called the new conservatives. They showed that they know how to look forward and are capable of change. They were distinguished by political flexibility and assertiveness, appeal to broad sections of the population, disdain for lazy people, independence, self-reliance and the desire for individual success.
At the end of the 90s In many European countries, conservatives were replaced by liberals. In 1997, a Labor government led by Edward Blair came to power in Great Britain. In 1998, the leader of the Social Democratic Party, Schröder, became Chancellor of Germany. In 2005, he was replaced as chancellor by A. Merkel, who headed the grand coalition government.
